History | B7 The Middle East: conflict, crisis and change, 1917¡V2012

Welcome to Chapter B7: The Middle East – Conflict, Crisis and Change (1917–2012)

Hello! This chapter explores one of the most complex and important regions in modern history: the Middle East. Don't worry if this seems like a massive topic – we will break it down piece by piece, focusing specifically on the intense cycle of conflict and attempts at peace, primarily between Israel and the Arab states, across nearly a century.

Understanding this history is crucial for your exam because it shows how different national, religious, and political desires clashed, creating the modern geopolitical map.

Section 1: The Seeds of Conflict (1917–1948)

The conflict in the Middle East largely stems from competing claims over the same land, particularly Palestine, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire until 1917.

Key Concepts: Competing Nationalisms

• Zionism: The political movement advocating for the re-establishment of a homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine (their ancient ancestral homeland). Zionism grew significantly in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Arab Nationalism: The movement promoting the political unity and independence of the Arab peoples in the territories previously controlled by the Ottoman Empire. They expected full independence after WWI.

1917: The Balfour Declaration

This is a foundational moment you must remember!

During World War I, Britain needed global support. In 1917, the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, issued the Balfour Declaration.

What did it say? Britain viewed with favour "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people," provided that nothing should be done to prejudice the rights of the existing non-Jewish communities (i.e., the Arabs).

Imagine this: Britain promised the same piece of land to two different groups: the Arabs (for helping defeat the Ottomans) and the Zionists (for political support). This contradictory promise guaranteed future conflict.

Post-WWI: The Mandate System

After the Ottoman Empire collapsed, the League of Nations placed former Ottoman territories under the control of Britain and France (known as the Mandate System).

• Britain was given the Mandate for Palestine (1920–1948).
• During this period, Jewish immigration increased, leading to mounting tensions, riots, and violence between the Arab majority and the Jewish settlers.

Section 2: The Creation of Israel and the First War (1948–1949)

By 1947, Britain could no longer control the violence. They handed the "Palestine problem" over to the United Nations (UN).

The UN Partition Plan (1947)

The UN proposed dividing Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem under international control.

• The Jewish side reluctantly accepted the plan, although they were unhappy with the small territory offered.
• The Arab side flatly rejected it, arguing that the UN had no right to give away land belonging to the indigenous Arab majority.

1948: Declaration and War

On 14 May 1948, as the British Mandate officially ended, Jewish leaders declared the establishment of the State of Israel.

• The very next day, armies from Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded Israel.
• Outcome: Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Israeli forces were better trained and organised. They won the war.

Consequences of the 1948 War:

• Israel survived and significantly expanded its borders beyond the UN Partition Plan.
• The Palestinian Refugee Crisis (The Nakba): Over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes, becoming refugees (a catastrophe, known in Arabic as the Nakba). This issue remains central to the conflict today.

Did you know? The United States and the Soviet Union were among the first countries to recognise the new state of Israel, despite being opponents in the growing Cold War.

Section 3: The Major Wars and Crises (1956–1973)

This period is marked by three intense wars, fundamentally reshaping the Middle East and involving global powers.

1. The Suez Crisis (1956)

Context: The rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt. Nasser was a strong Arab nationalist who opposed Western interference.

• The Crisis: In July 1956, Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal (took it from British/French control) to fund the Aswan High Dam project.
• Britain and France, furious, secretly agreed with Israel to launch a military attack to seize the Canal back and overthrow Nasser.
• Outcome: Israel invaded Sinai, followed by British and French air strikes. However, the USA and the Soviet Union strongly condemned the invasion. The international pressure forced Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw.
• Key Takeaway: It was a political defeat for Britain and France, confirming that they were no longer the dominant global powers in the region. Nasser was hugely successful and became a hero across the Arab world.

2. The Six-Day War (June 1967)

This war was rapid and decisive, dramatically changing the physical geography of the conflict.

• Causes: High tensions, border skirmishes, Egyptian massing of troops in Sinai, and the closure of the Straits of Tiran (Israel’s crucial shipping route).
• The War: Israel launched a devastating pre-emptive strike against Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian air forces.
• Outcome: In just six days, Israel won completely, capturing massive amounts of territory:
  1. The Golan Heights (from Syria)
  2. The West Bank and East Jerusalem (from Jordan)
  3. The Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula (from Egypt)

The occupation of these new territories, especially the West Bank and Gaza (known as the Occupied Territories), created millions of new Palestinian people under Israeli military rule, laying the foundation for future conflict.

UN Resolution 242 (1967): Passed after the war, demanding Israel withdraw from the occupied territories in exchange for peace and recognition by the Arab states. This became the basis for future peace negotiations.

3. The Yom Kippur War (October 1973)

The Arab states, determined to regain the land lost in 1967, launched a coordinated surprise attack on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur.

• The Attack: Egypt crossed the Suez Canal and Syria attacked the Golan Heights. They achieved initial success.
• Response: Israel was initially shocked but quickly mobilised and, with US support, reversed the tide.
• Significance: Although Israel won militarily, the war was a huge psychological victory for the Arabs. It shattered the belief that Israel was invincible and forced both sides to consider genuine diplomacy.

Section 4: Peace Efforts and New Challenges (1970s–1990s)

The post-1973 era saw the first successful attempts at peace between Israel and an Arab state, alongside the rise of Palestinian political resistance.

The Camp David Accords (1978)

Following intense diplomacy brokered by US President Jimmy Carter, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat met at Camp David.

Result: The first ever peace treaty between Israel and an Arab nation (Egypt).

• Egypt recognised the State of Israel’s right to exist.
• Israel returned the entire Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.

The consequence: Sadat was hailed internationally but assassinated by extremists in 1981 for making peace with Israel.

The Rise of the PLO

The Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, became the recognised representative of the Palestinian people. The PLO shifted the focus from conventional warfare to guerrilla tactics and attacks on Israeli targets globally.

The First Intifada (1987–1993)

The Intifada (Arabic for "shaking off" or "uprising") was a spontaneous, widespread popular revolt by Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank against the Israeli occupation.

• It involved protests, commercial strikes, and young Palestinians confronting Israeli soldiers, often throwing stones.
• Significance: This showed the world the human cost of the occupation and put immense international pressure on Israel to find a political solution.

The Oslo Accords (1993)

Driven by the pressure of the Intifada, secret negotiations between Israel and the PLO took place in Oslo, Norway.

The Oslo Accords included:

• Mutual Recognition: The PLO formally recognised Israel's right to exist; Israel recognised the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people.
• The creation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza (a limited form of self-rule).
• These Accords were meant to be temporary, leading to a permanent solution within five years. That permanent solution never materialised.

Common Mistake to Avoid: The Oslo Accords established the PA, not a fully independent Palestinian state.

Section 5: New Century, New Conflicts (2000–2012)

The optimism of the Oslo period faded quickly, leading to increased violence and regional instability.

The Second Intifada (2000–2005)

A failed peace summit at Camp David in 2000 led to heightened tensions, which exploded into a second, far more violent uprising after Israeli leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem.

• This conflict was characterised by deadly suicide bombings carried out by Palestinian militant groups (like Hamas) targeting Israeli civilians.
• Israel responded with intense military operations, including incursions into Palestinian cities.
• Consequence: Israel began constructing the controversial Separation Barrier (wall/fence) along and within the West Bank, citing security needs. This barrier effectively annexed more land and severely restricted Palestinian movement.

Crisis and Change in the Wider Region

While the Arab-Israeli conflict remained central, other major events fundamentally altered the Middle East political landscape leading up to 2012:

• The Iranian Revolution (1979): Iran shifted from a Western-backed monarchy to an anti-Western Islamic Republic, which began funding militant groups across the region.
• The Gulf Wars (1990-1991 and 2003): The US-led invasions of Iraq created immense instability and fundamentally shifted the balance of power, removing a major historical counterweight to Iran and Syria.
• Rise of Non-State Actors: Groups like Hezbollah (in Lebanon) and Hamas (in Gaza) emerged, challenging both Israel and the traditional Palestinian leadership (the PA).

Key Takeaway (Up to 2012)

By 2012, despite nearly a century of conflict and multiple treaties, a full, comprehensive peace settlement remained elusive. The core issues – borders, Palestinian refugees, and the status of Jerusalem – continued to fuel crises, confirming the region as one defined by ongoing change and conflict.