History | B3 Japan in transformation, 1853–1945

B3 Japan in Transformation, 1853–1945: Study Notes

Hello future historians! Welcome to one of the most exciting and important chapters in modern history. Japan, in less than a century, went from a traditional, isolated island nation to a major global power—and then faced ultimate defeat. This transformation is incredible!

We will break down this complex story into four easy-to-manage sections. Focus on the causes and consequences of each major change. Let’s get started!

Section 1: The End of Isolation (1853–1868)

For over 200 years, Japan followed a policy called Sakoku, meaning "closed country." They intentionally limited contact with the outside world, mainly fearing Western influence (especially Christianity and colonization).

Key Event: The Arrival of Commodore Perry (1853–1854)

Imagine living in a safe, quiet bubble, only for a giant, loud spaceship to land in your backyard. That's essentially what happened in 1853.

• Who: US Commodore Matthew Perry.
• What: He sailed into Tokyo Bay with four heavily armed warships, known to the Japanese as the "Black Ships."
• Why: The US wanted coaling stations for its Pacific fleet and access to Japanese ports for trade. Perry delivered a letter demanding that Japan open up.

Japan’s leaders, the Shogunate (military rulers), realised their traditional weapons and ships were no match for Western technology. They were forced to comply.

Consequences of Perry’s Arrival

The Shogunate signed the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854), which opened two ports to American ships. This was the first of several Unequal Treaties forced upon Japan by Western powers.

What is an Unequal Treaty?
These treaties were "unequal" because they granted Western powers privileges that the Japanese did not receive in return. For example, they allowed Extraterritoriality—meaning Westerners accused of crimes in Japan could be tried under their own country’s laws, not Japanese law. This made the Japanese government look weak.

The perceived weakness of the Shogunate (Tokugawa family) led to widespread anger and calls to "Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians!"

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Section 2: The Meiji Restoration and Radical Modernisation (1868–c.1900)

The discontent boiled over, leading to the overthrow of the Shogunate in 1868. This event is called the Meiji Restoration (Meiji means "Enlightened Rule").

The 15-year-old Emperor Meiji was symbolically returned to power. However, real control was exercised by a small group of ambitious reformers who believed Japan must modernise rapidly to avoid colonisation by the West.

The Goal: ‘Rich Nation, Strong Army’ (Fukoku Kyōhei)

The Meiji reformers aimed to transform Japan into a modern industrial and military power in just a few decades. This involved sweeping changes across society, politics, and economics.

A. Political Transformation

• Abolition of Feudalism: The old class system (Samurai, farmers, artisans) was abolished. The Samurai, though losing their special status, were encouraged to become modern government officials or military officers.
• The Charter Oath (1868): A promise to establish consultative assemblies and seek knowledge from around the world.
• The Meiji Constitution (1889):
  • Established a two-house parliament (the Diet).
  • Although the Diet could debate laws, the Emperor (and the oligarchs advising him) retained ultimate authority, especially over the military.
  • Don't worry if this seems tricky at first: Just remember that while Japan looked like it had a democracy, the Emperor and a few powerful officials still held the real power behind the scenes.

B. Economic and Industrial Transformation

Japan borrowed heavily from the West to fund its industrialisation, sending officials and students abroad to learn the best practices.

Analogy: Think of Japan copying the homework of the best students in the class (Britain, Germany, USA) and handing it in, but adapting it slightly to fit their own needs.

• Infrastructure: Rapid construction of railways, telegraph lines, and modern ports.
• Industry: The government established model factories (especially for silk and textiles) and then sold them off cheaply to wealthy families (like Mitsui and Mitsubishi). These huge industrial companies became known as Zaibatsu.
• Military Strength: Compulsory military service was introduced, and Japan built modern armies and navies based on European designs.

Key Takeaway from the Meiji Era

The Meiji Restoration was a revolution from above. Japan successfully modernised and became the first non-Western nation to industrialise, making it capable of challenging the Western powers.

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Section 3: Japanese Expansionism and Foreign Policy (c.1894–1931)

Once Japan had a "Strong Army," they started looking outwards. Why did they become aggressive and seek an empire?

Reasons for Imperial Expansion (The Three R’s)

1. Resources: Japan is poor in raw materials (coal, iron, oil) needed to fuel its new factories. They needed land with these materials, especially nearby Manchuria and Korea.
2. Revenge/Respect: To remove the humiliation of the Unequal Treaties and prove they were equal to, or better than, Western powers.
3. Regional Security: Leaders believed an empire provided a defensive buffer against Western or Russian expansion.

The Key Wars of Expansion

1. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)

• Who: Japan vs. China (Qing Dynasty).
• Cause: Conflict over control of Korea.
• Outcome: Japan’s modern military easily defeated the huge but outdated Chinese army. Japan gained Taiwan and increased influence in Korea.
• Intervention: Russia, Germany, and France intervened (the Triple Intervention), forcing Japan to give up some of its gains. This deeply angered the Japanese public and government.

2. The Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)

This war was a monumental moment in world history.

• Who: Japan vs. Russia (a major European power).
• Cause: Conflict over control of Manchuria and Korea.
• Outcome: Japan won decisive victories on land and at sea (destroying the entire Russian Baltic Fleet).
• Significance: This was the first time an Asian nation had defeated a major European power in the modern era. It cemented Japan’s status as a world power and led to the annexation of Korea in 1910.

Japan in the First World War (1914–1918)

Japan joined WWI on the side of the Allies (Britain, France, etc.). It didn't fight much in Europe but used the distraction of the war to seize German colonies and spheres of influence in China and the Pacific.

• Japan gained new territory and recognition in the League of Nations, confirming its position as a global player.

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Section 4: Militarism and the Road to Total War (1931–1945)

The 1920s saw a brief period of democratic progress in Japan, but this was quickly undermined by economic crises and the growing power of the military.

The Crisis of the Early 1930s

Two major events pushed Japan towards military control:

1. The Great Depression (1929 onwards): Global trade collapsed. Japan relied heavily on exports (like silk) and its economy crashed. Many Japanese felt that reliance on international trade and democracy was weak.
2. Fear of the West: Western countries (like the US) began imposing trade restrictions on Japan. The military argued that Japan had to secure its own resources through conquest—specifically in China.

The Rise of the Military (The Kōdōha)

Japanese democracy was weak, and the military increasingly acted without the permission of the civilian government. They believed expansion was Japan's destiny.

The Manchurian Crisis (1931)

This event marked Japan's aggressive shift and the breakdown of international cooperation.

• The Event: Japanese military officers staged the Mukden Incident (a minor explosion on a Japanese-owned railway line).
• The Action: The military used this as an excuse to invade and occupy the entire region of Manchuria (rich in coal and iron).
• The Result: Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo. The League of Nations condemned the invasion, but Japan simply withdrew from the League in 1933.

This move showed the world that Japan valued expansion over international law, and the military’s power was now dominant.

Escalation to Full War (1937–1941)

• Second Sino-Japanese War (1937): A full-scale invasion of China began. Japan’s forces committed terrible atrocities, such as the Rape of Nanking, but the Chinese resistance was fierce.
• The New Order: Japan declared its goal was to establish the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere"—a fancy name for Japanese economic and military dominance over Asia.
• Alliance with Germany: In 1940, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, officially forming the Axis Powers.

World War II and Defeat (1941–1945)

The US demanded that Japan withdraw from China. When Japan refused, the US imposed an oil embargo (stopping all oil shipments to Japan). Japan saw this as a direct threat to its economy and military survival.

The military leadership decided that war with the US was inevitable and that the only way to win was to strike first and cripple the US Pacific fleet.

• Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941): Japan launched a surprise attack on the US naval base in Hawaii, bringing the US into WWII.
• Rapid Conquest: Japan quickly occupied huge territories across Southeast Asia (Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, etc.).
• The Tide Turns: After early successes, the US military superiority began to crush the Japanese forces, using a strategy known as "island hopping."
• Defeat (1945): After the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered in August 1945, ending its era of militarism and empire.

Key Takeaway from Section 4

The Great Depression and militarist ideology pushed Japan toward conquest, culminating in a devastating war with the US, which resulted in Japan’s total defeat and the end of the transformation period we have studied.