A2 Russia and the Soviet Union, 1905–24: Study Notes
Hello future historian! This chapter is one of the most exciting and dramatic periods in modern history. We are going to explore how Russia went from being ruled by an absolute monarch (the Tsar) to becoming the world's first Communist state (the Soviet Union) in less than twenty years.
Don't worry if all the names and dates seem confusing at first. We will break down this complex story of revolution, war, and change into simple, step-by-step sections. Understanding this period is crucial because the events between 1905 and 1924 shaped the rest of the 20th century!
Section 1: The Foundations of Instability – Tsarist Russia Before 1917
Before 1905, Russia was like a very old, unstable building waiting to collapse. The problems were deep-rooted and affected almost everyone.
The Role of Tsar Nicholas II
The Tsar was the absolute ruler, believing he was appointed by God (this is called autocracy). Nicholas II was personally well-meaning but a terrible ruler. He was weak, easily influenced, and utterly resistant to modernizing Russia or sharing power.
- Key Weakness: He relied heavily on the secret police and force to maintain control, rather than earning the people's respect.
- Analogy: Imagine a school principal who insists on running the school exactly as it was 200 years ago, ignoring the needs of modern students and teachers.
Deep Social and Economic Problems
Russian society was massively unequal:
- Peasants (80% of the population): Most were desperately poor farmers who did not own enough land and lived in terrible conditions. They faced famine regularly.
- Industrial Workers: As Russia started industrializing late, factory conditions were brutal: low pay, long hours, dangerous environments. They were concentrated in cities like St Petersburg and Moscow, making them easy to organize for protests.
- The Middle Class and Intelligentsia: Educated groups (teachers, lawyers, doctors) wanted democracy, a constitution, and limits on the Tsar's power.
Quick Review: The Tsarist system was unstable because the Tsar was incompetent, and the vast majority of people were poor, starving, or denied political rights.
Section 2: The Dress Rehearsal – The 1905 Revolution
The first major warning sign for the Tsar was the 1905 Revolution. It didn't overthrow the Tsar, but it forced him to make crucial changes.
The Causes and Triggers
- Long-term discontent: The social and economic problems listed above.
- Immediate Trigger: Russia suffered a humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05). Losing a war to a smaller Asian power shattered the myth of Russian military strength and competence.
Bloody Sunday (January 1905)
This was the spark that ignited the revolution.
A huge crowd of peaceful workers, led by a priest named Father Gapon, marched to the Tsar’s Winter Palace in St Petersburg to present a petition asking for better conditions. The guards panicked and fired on the unarmed crowd, killing hundreds.
Why is this key? This event destroyed the people's belief that the Tsar cared for them. Before, they viewed him as their "Little Father"; now, they saw him as a brutal tyrant.
Consequences: The October Manifesto
Strikes, riots, and peasant uprisings spread across Russia. The Tsar was forced to give in to some demands to survive.
In the October Manifesto (1905), Nicholas II promised:
- Basic civil rights (freedom of speech, assembly).
- The creation of the Duma (an elected parliament).
Did you know? Workers in the cities also formed their own local councils called Soviets (councils of workers and soldiers), which would become crucially important later.
The Aftermath (1906–1914)
The promises were largely broken. The Tsar called the Duma into session, but whenever it disagreed with him, he dismissed it. The Duma was often called "the talking shop" because it had very little real power. The Tsar had survived, but nothing fundamental had changed.
Key Takeaway: 1905 showed the Tsar was willing to use violence against his own people and that he would only share power temporarily before seizing it back.
Section 3: The Fatal Blow – Russia and World War I (1914–1917)
WWI was the final nail in the coffin for the Tsarist regime. The war exposed every weakness in the Russian system.
Military Catastrophe
Russia mobilized huge numbers of soldiers (millions), but they were poorly trained, badly equipped, and often sent to the front without rifles or proper boots.
- Key Defeats: Early defeats like the Battle of Tannenberg (1914) caused massive loss of life and destroyed morale.
- The Tsar Takes Command: In 1915, Nicholas II made the disastrous decision to take personal command of the army. This meant that every military failure was now blamed directly on him.
Economic Collapse and Home Front Suffering
The war ruined the Russian economy:
- Transportation: The railway system, already poor, collapsed under the strain of moving troops and supplies. This meant essential goods (like food) could not reach the cities.
- Food Shortages: Food rotted next to the railway tracks while people in Petrograd starved.
- Inflation: Prices soared, making bread and fuel unaffordable for workers.
The Scandal of the Royal Family
While the Tsar was away at the front, his German wife, Tsarina Alexandra, was left in charge. She was heavily influenced by a mysterious peasant monk named Rasputin.
The Russian nobility and public saw Rasputin's influence as deeply corrupting and shameful. This scandal further eroded any respect the public had left for the royal family.
Key Takeaway: WWI turned chronic (long-term) problems into acute (immediate, life-threatening) crisis. The Tsar’s absence, military defeats, and crippling shortages made revolution inevitable.
Section 4: 1917 – Two Revolutions
1917 saw Russia undergo two massive shifts: first, the end of the Tsar (February), and second, the takeover by the Bolsheviks (October).
A. The February Revolution (The Fall of the Tsar)
This revolution was spontaneous – nobody planned it!
Step 1: Unrest (February 1917): Strikes broke out in Petrograd (St Petersburg) over bread shortages. Women workers led many of these protests.
Step 2: Mutiny: Crucially, when the Tsar ordered the police and soldiers to crush the protests, the soldiers mutinied (refused to obey) and joined the crowds instead.
Step 3: Abdication: Without the support of the army, and with pressure from generals and the Duma, Tsar Nicholas II had no choice. He abdicated (stepped down) on 2 March 1917, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule.
The Dual Power (March–October 1917)
After the Tsar left, two groups claimed power, creating a system called Dual Power:
- The Provisional Government: Made up of middle-class liberals from the old Duma. They aimed to set up a proper democracy later.
- The Petrograd Soviet: Made up of representatives of the workers and soldiers. They had the real power because they controlled the soldiers, railways, and factories.
Why did the Provisional Government fail?
Its fatal mistake was continuing the war. The people were desperate for "Peace, Land, and Bread." By failing to give them this, the Provisional Government lost all popular support.
B. The October Revolution (The Rise of the Bolsheviks)
This revolution was planned and executed by one specific political party: the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Lenin was a dedicated Communist who believed Russia was ready for a socialist revolution. He returned to Russia in April 1917 (with help from Germany, who wanted to destabilize Russia).
- Lenin's Slogan: Simple, powerful, and exactly what the people wanted: "Peace, Land, Bread!" and "All Power to the Soviets!"
- The Bolsheviks gained influence by promising immediate solutions, while the Provisional Government hesitated.
The Takeover
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, organized by Leon Trotsky, seized key strategic points in Petrograd (bridges, post offices, railway stations) with very little resistance.
The official climax was the storming of the Winter Palace, the headquarters of the Provisional Government. It was almost bloodless.
Key Takeaway: The February Revolution was a chaotic popular uprising against the Tsar. The October Revolution was an organized coup d’état by the Bolsheviks against the weak Provisional Government.
Section 5: Consolidation of Power – The Russian Civil War (1918–1921)
The Bolsheviks (now called Communists) had seized power, but they didn't control Russia. They faced a brutal three-year Civil War to survive.
The Two Sides
- The Reds (Bolsheviks/Communists): Fought to keep the revolution alive.
- The Whites (Anti-Bolsheviks): A mix of everyone else: Tsarist loyalists, liberals, socialists who disagreed with Lenin, and foreign forces (like Britain, France, USA) who feared Communism.
Step-by-Step: The Reds Win the Civil War
1. Trotsky's Leadership: Trotsky was an outstanding organizer. He created the highly effective Red Army, enforcing strict discipline (including execution for desertion). He used an armored train to travel constantly, boosting morale.
2. Geography: The Reds held the central area of Western Russia, including the major industrial cities (Moscow and Petrograd). This meant they had better access to factories, supplies, and railways.
3. White Disunity: The Whites fought many different battles with different goals. They often failed to cooperate, making it easy for the Reds to defeat them one by one.
4. Terror and Control: The Bolsheviks used political repression to crush opposition. The Cheka (Bolshevik secret police) arrested and executed tens of thousands of suspected enemies during the period known as the Red Terror.
Analogy: The Whites were like five different teams playing five different sports, while the Reds were a single, highly disciplined football team playing together.
Key Event (1918): The former Tsar Nicholas II and his entire family were executed by the Bolsheviks to prevent them from becoming a rallying point for the Whites.
Key Takeaway: The Civil War was won by the Bolsheviks due to military genius (Trotsky), superior organization, and ruthless repression (The Cheka and Red Terror).
Section 6: Economic Survival and the Creation of the USSR
Winning the Civil War came at a huge cost. The economy was destroyed, leading Lenin to introduce a radical change in policy.
War Communism (1918–1921)
This policy was designed to ensure the Red Army was fed and supplied, whatever the cost.
- Policy: The state took control of nearly all industry and forcibly seized all surplus grain from the peasants (known as requisitioning).
- Result: It helped the Reds win the war, but it caused economic disaster, famine, and widespread peasant rebellion because they had no incentive to produce food.
The Kronstadt Uprising (1921)
In 1921, sailors at the Kronstadt naval base (who had been loyal heroes of the 1917 revolution) revolted against the harsh policies of War Communism. Lenin realized the regime was on the verge of collapsing from within.
The uprising showed Lenin that radical change was needed to save the Communist state.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
In 1921, Lenin dramatically reversed course and introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP).
What was the NEP?
It was a temporary compromise with capitalism. Instead of seizing all grain, peasants now paid a small fixed tax and could sell their surplus produce for profit. Small private businesses were also allowed to reopen.
- Lenin's View: He described the NEP as "one step backward, two steps forward." It saved the economy by stimulating food production and trade, but it was ideologically unpopular with hard-line Communists.
- Result: Food returned to the markets, trade recovered, and Russia was stabilized.
The Final Years (1922–1924)
By 1922, the state was secure enough for its final political structuring:
- Formation of the USSR: In 1922, Russia officially became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), a federal state encompassing various Soviet republics (like Ukraine, Belarus, etc.) under the central authority of Moscow.
- Lenin’s Death: Vladimir Lenin suffered several strokes and died in January 1924. His death created a power vacuum, setting the stage for the struggle between his lieutenants, most famously Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky, which would shape the subsequent decades.
Key Takeaway: Lenin prioritized survival over pure Communist theory. War Communism almost destroyed the nation; the NEP saved it, allowing the formation of the USSR before Lenin's death.
Chapter Review: Key Chronology & Mnemonics
To keep the key dates straight, remember these points:
1905: Bloody Sunday leads to the fake parliament (Duma).
1914: WWI begins, leading to disaster.
1917 (Feb): Tsar falls (Abdication).
1917 (Oct): Bolsheviks seize power (Lenin takes over).
1918–21: Civil War (Reds vs. Whites) and War Communism.
1921: NEP introduced (Economic recovery).
1924: Lenin dies.
Memory Trick for Lenin’s Slogan:
P - Peace (Get Russia out of WWI)
L - Land (Give land to the peasants)
B - Bread (Stop the starvation)