History | A world divided: superpower relations, 1943–72

Welcome to A World Divided: Superpower Relations, 1943–72

Hello Historians! This chapter is one of the most exciting, dramatic, and important periods you will study: the Cold War. Don't worry about the term "Cold"—it was anything but simple!

You will learn how the USA and the Soviet Union went from being allies fighting Hitler to becoming sworn enemies who almost destroyed the world. Understanding this division—the ideological split between Capitalism and Communism—is key to understanding modern history. Let's dive in!

Key Goal: Understanding the Shift from Alliance to Hostility

1. The Grand Alliance Crumbles (1943–1947)

The Cold War didn't start with a bang; it started with suspicion. The USA (Capitalist) and the Soviet Union (Communist) were known as the Grand Alliance, united only by the need to defeat Nazi Germany.

Wartime Conferences: Planting Seeds of Division

The three main meetings between the 'Big Three' leaders (Roosevelt/Truman, Churchill, Stalin) revealed fundamental disagreements about how Europe should look after the war.

• Tehran (1943): Agreement to open a second front against Germany. Stalin showed deep suspicion that the USA and Britain were delaying this.
• Yalta (February 1945):
  - Agreement that Germany would be divided into four zones.
  - Stalin promised 'free and fair' elections in the countries liberated by the Red Army (especially Poland).
• Potsdam (July 1945): This is where the real tension began. Churchill was replaced by Attlee, and Roosevelt had died, replaced by Harry Truman.

The Potsdam Problem: Truman was much tougher on Stalin than Roosevelt had been. Crucially, during the conference, Truman learned that the USA had successfully tested the Atomic Bomb. This gave the USA massive military superiority, making Truman less willing to compromise with Stalin, who felt deliberately isolated and threatened.

Stalin's Control and the Iron Curtain

Stalin’s priority was security. He believed the USSR needed a buffer zone of friendly states to protect it from future invasions from the West. By 1947, the Soviet Union controlled Eastern European countries, turning them into Satellite States (countries politically and economically dependent on the USSR).

• Salami Tactics: This is the term for how Stalin gradually took control. Imagine slicing a salami very thinly, piece by piece. He would slowly remove all opposition, ensuring Communist leaders were in charge, despite promising free elections.
• 1946: Former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous Iron Curtain Speech in the USA, stating that an invisible political and physical barrier had descended across Europe, dividing the free West from the Soviet-controlled East. This speech effectively confirmed the start of the Cold War.

Key Takeaway (Section 1):

Mistrust, the division of Germany, and the shock of the Atomic Bomb ended the wartime alliance. The Iron Curtain became the physical and metaphorical border between two opposing worlds.

2. Defining the Divide: Ideologies and Early Crises

The conflict was not just about control; it was a fundamental clash between two diametrically opposed ways of life.

The Ideological Battleground

USA (Capitalism/Democracy)	USSR (Communism/Dictatorship)
Private ownership of business and property.	State ownership of all industry and land.
People elect their leaders; freedom of speech.	One-party rule; strict censorship.
Individual wealth and freedom are highly valued.	Equality and the collective good are paramount.

Containment: The American Response (1947)

The US policy became Containment: stopping the spread of Communism wherever it might threaten to take hold. This policy had two main parts:

1. The Truman Doctrine (March 1947):
   - Truman promised that the USA would provide aid (money, supplies, military advice) to any country threatened by Communism.
   - Example: Immediate aid was sent to Greece and Turkey to prevent Communist takeover.
2. The Marshall Plan (Economic Aid):
   - Named after Secretary of State George Marshall, this was a massive economic recovery programme for war-torn Western Europe.
   - Why? The US believed poverty breeds Communism. By making countries rich and stable, they would reject Communist ideology. The USSR saw this as 'Dollar Imperialism' (USA buying influence).

Did you know? The Marshall Plan offered aid to Eastern Europe too, but Stalin immediately forbade Satellite States from accepting it.

The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–49)

Berlin, although deep inside the Soviet zone of Germany, was also divided into four sectors. It became the first major flashpoint.

The Crisis: In 1948, the Western Allies (USA, Britain, France) introduced a new currency in their zones of Germany and West Berlin, intending to rebuild the German economy. Stalin saw this as a direct threat. In response, he blocked all road, rail, and canal access into West Berlin—the Berlin Blockade.

The Solution: The Allies refused to abandon West Berlin, but a land invasion would start World War III. Instead, they launched the Berlin Airlift, flying supplies (food, fuel, medicine) into West Berlin for almost a year. In May 1949, Stalin, realizing the blockade was ineffective and embarrassing, lifted it.

Result: The Blockade confirmed the division of Germany: West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany - FRG) and East Germany (German Democratic Republic - GDR).

The Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact

The Berlin Blockade solidified military alliances:

• NATO (1949): The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. A military alliance where an attack on one member was treated as an attack on all.
• Warsaw Pact (1955): The Soviet equivalent, created seven years later in response to West Germany joining NATO.

Key Takeaway (Section 2):

Containment became the core US policy, enforced economically by the Marshall Plan. The Berlin Blockade cemented the division of Germany and led to the creation of two rival military blocs: NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

3. Globalisation of the Conflict: Asia and the Arms Race

The Cold War quickly spread beyond Europe.

The Korean War (1950–1953)

Korea was divided at the 38th parallel after World War II. The Communist North (supported by USSR/China) invaded the Capitalist South (supported by the USA).

• UN Intervention: The US successfully pushed a resolution through the UN Security Council (the USSR was temporarily boycotting it) to send UN troops, largely American, to defend South Korea.
• Escalation: When UN forces pushed too far north, China intervened with massive troop numbers.
• Impact: The war ended in a stalemate along the original 38th parallel. This conflict proved that the USA was serious about containment, even if it meant fighting a 'proxy war' (a war where the superpowers support opposing sides rather than fighting each other directly).

The Arms Race and Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)

The US monopoly on nuclear weapons ended in 1949 when the USSR successfully tested its own atomic bomb. This triggered a frantic Arms Race, focusing on developing more destructive weapons (Hydrogen Bombs, ICBMs).

The result was MAD: Mutually Assured Destruction. Both sides knew that if one launched a nuclear attack, the other would instantly retaliate, leading to the total annihilation of both. This terrifying concept ironically helped keep the "Cold" in the Cold War, preventing direct military confrontation between the superpowers.

Key Takeaway (Section 3):

The Korean War demonstrated containment in action and cemented the idea of proxy wars. The Arms Race led to MAD, meaning global stability rested on the fear of total annihilation.

4. The Era of Khrushchev and Renewed Crisis (1956–1961)

After Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev took power. He introduced De-Stalinization and proposed a policy called Peaceful Coexistence, suggesting Communism and Capitalism could exist without fighting a hot war. However, events soon tested this idea.

The Hungarian Uprising (1956)

Hungarians, encouraged by Khrushchev's softer line, rebelled against Soviet control. Reformer Imre Nagy became Prime Minister and announced two crucial decisions:

1. He planned to leave the Warsaw Pact.
2. He called for Hungary to become neutral.

Khrushchev viewed leaving the Warsaw Pact as a direct threat to Soviet security (breaking the buffer zone). He sent 200,000 Soviet troops and 1,000 tanks to crush the uprising violently. Nagy was executed.

Impact: The West (USA) condemned the action but did nothing to help the Hungarians, demonstrating that containment did not apply to reversing Communism in already established Satellite States.

The Berlin Crisis and the Wall (1958–1961)

By the late 1950s, West Berlin was a flourishing capitalist island surrounded by Communist East Germany (GDR). It was an embarrassment to Khrushchev because skilled East German workers (doctors, engineers, teachers) were fleeing to the West (known as the 'refugee problem' or 'brain drain').

1958 Ultimatum: Khrushchev demanded the Western powers withdraw from Berlin, threatening to hand over control of all access routes to the East German government.

The Wall (August 1961): Since the West refused to leave, Khrushchev took decisive action. Overnight, East German soldiers erected a physical barrier—initially barbed wire, then concrete—splitting the city in two: the Berlin Wall.

Impact:

• It ended the refugee crisis for the GDR.
• It became the ultimate symbol of the Iron Curtain and Communist tyranny.
• It technically reduced tensions because the USSR had found a physical solution that didn't involve direct military confrontation with the US.

Key Takeaway (Section 4):

Khrushchev's 'Peaceful Coexistence' was conditional; he would use military force (Hungary) to maintain Soviet control over the Satellite States. The Berlin Wall became the starkest physical representation of the divided world.

5. The Brink of War: The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

This was the most dangerous moment of the entire Cold War, bringing the superpowers closer to nuclear war than ever before.

Background: Castro, Cuba, and US Fear

• In 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew the US-backed dictator of Cuba (just 90 miles off the US coast).
• When Castro nationalized US businesses, the US cut off trade. Castro turned to the USSR for support.
• Bay of Pigs (1961): US President John F. Kennedy (JFK) supported an attempt by Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro. It was a humiliating failure for the US.

The Crisis: The Discovery (October 1962)

Khrushchev saw this as an opportunity. In October 1962, a US spy plane (U-2) photographed secret Soviet missile launch sites being built in Cuba. These sites could launch nuclear missiles capable of hitting most major US cities within minutes.

JFK's Options and Resolution

JFK formed EXCOMM (Executive Committee) to decide the US response. They debated several options:

Option 1: Invasion/Air Attack (Too dangerous, would guarantee Soviet retaliation.)
Option 2: Diplomatic Talks (Too slow.)
Option 3: The Naval Blockade (Quarantine) (The chosen path.)

JFK announced a 'quarantine' (a naval blockade) around Cuba, preventing any Soviet ships carrying missiles from reaching the island. He demanded the missiles already in Cuba be removed. For 13 terrifying days, the world waited to see if Soviet ships would cross the quarantine line.

The Deal and the Resolution

Khrushchev eventually backed down, offering a deal:

1. The USSR would withdraw the missiles from Cuba.
2. The USA would promise never to invade Cuba.
3. (Secretly): The USA would quietly remove obsolete Jupiter missiles it had deployed in Turkey (near the Soviet border).

Significance: Both leaders had found a way to de-escalate without losing face. They learned the terrifying reality of brinkmanship (pushing a situation to the verge of disaster).

Key Takeaway (Section 5):

The Cuban Missile Crisis forced both superpowers to recognize the catastrophic danger of nuclear war. It was the catalyst for improving communication and reducing tension in the following years.

6. The Path to Détente (1963–1972)

The sheer panic caused by the Cuban Crisis led to a period of reduced hostility known as Détente (a French word meaning "the easing of strained relations").

Improving Communications

• The Hot Line (1963): A direct secure phone link (a "red phone" – although it wasn't red!) was established between the White House and the Kremlin (the Soviet government headquarters). This meant leaders could communicate instantly to avoid misunderstandings during a crisis.

Limiting the Arms Race

The focus shifted from building weapons to controlling them through treaties:

• Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) (1963): This banned the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, and in outer space. Underground testing was still permitted.
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968): Countries that had nuclear weapons agreed not to spread the technology to others. Those without nuclear weapons agreed not to develop them.

Did you know? Détente continued into the 1970s, symbolized by the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) in 1972, which formally limited the growth of nuclear arsenals. This treaty solidified the move away from the high tension of the 1960s.

Key Takeaway (Section 6):

The shock of Cuba propelled the world towards Détente. This shift was characterized by better communication (Hot Line) and treaties (LTBT, NPT) aimed at slowing the arms race and stabilizing the world.

Final Thought

You have now mastered the story of how the post-war world fractured and then, slowly, began the process of healing. Remember that this period is defined by intense ideological rivalry, leading to proxy wars and terrifying nuclear standoffs, all managed under the shadow of MAD. Well done!