Geography | Urban environments

Hello, Future Geographers! Understanding Our Urban World

Welcome to the chapter on Urban Environments! This is a fascinating area of Human Geography because it looks at how the majority of the world's population now lives—in cities. Cities are buzzing, dynamic places, but they also face huge challenges.

In these notes, we will break down key concepts like why cities grow, how they are structured, and the problems they face, from huge mega-cities in developing countries to older, established cities in developed countries.

Don't worry if some terms seem new; we will explain everything step-by-step using clear examples! Let’s dive in!

Section 1: The Process of Urbanisation

1.1 What is Urbanisation?

Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion (percentage) of people living in urban areas (towns and cities) compared to rural areas (the countryside).

The world is becoming increasingly urbanised. More than half the global population now lives in cities!

Key Differences in Urban Growth Rates

The speed at which cities are growing differs hugely between rich and poor countries:

• High-Income Countries (HICs): The UK, USA, Japan.

  Urbanisation happened early (during the Industrial Revolution, 18th-19th centuries). Growth rates are now slow or have stopped entirely. Most people already live in cities.

• Low-Income Countries (LICs) and Newly Emerging Economies (NEEs): Nigeria, China, India, Brazil.

  Urbanisation is happening rapidly now, driven by huge population movements from rural to urban areas. This rapid growth leads to mega-cities (cities with over 10 million people).

1.2 Causes of Urban Growth

There are two main reasons why cities grow:

A. Natural Increase

This happens when the birth rate in a city is higher than the death rate. Although death rates in cities can sometimes be high (due to pollution or disease), cities often have better healthcare and younger populations, leading to more births.

B. Migration (Rural-to-Urban)

This is the movement of people from the countryside to the city. This is the biggest driver of rapid urbanisation in LICs and NEEs.

People move because of Push and Pull Factors. Think of it like this:

Push Factors: Things that force or encourage people to leave rural areas.

• Lack of job opportunities (especially for young people).
• Poor services (limited schools, hospitals).
• Famine, drought, or natural disasters.
• Poverty and lack of electricity/clean water.

Pull Factors: Things that attract people to the city (the "pull" of the magnet).

• The prospect of better-paid jobs.
• Better educational and medical facilities.
• Improved infrastructure (roads, electricity, water pipes).
• A perceived 'bright lights' effect (excitement and entertainment).

Section 2: The Shape of the City – Land Use Patterns

When you fly over a city, you don't see random buildings. Cities are structured based on what the land is used for (e.g., housing, shops, factories). This is called Urban Land Use Zonation.

Land in the centre of a city is usually the most expensive because it is the most accessible. As you move outwards, the price generally falls, leading to different uses.

2.1 Key Urban Land Use Zones

1. The Central Business District (CBD)

• Location: The very centre of the city (the core).
• Characteristics: Highest land prices, highest density of buildings (often skyscrapers—to maximize space), major banks, headquarters, major transport hubs, department stores.
• Why? Maximum accessibility for shoppers and businesses.

2. The Inner City (Inner Ring)

• Location: Surrounding the CBD.
• Characteristics: Often contains old terraced housing originally built for factory workers; former industrial areas (now often derelict or being redeveloped as 'brownfield sites'). Land use is mixed (residential, light industry, warehouses).

3. The Suburbs (Outer Ring)

• Location: Further out, surrounding the inner city.
• Characteristics: Dominantly residential (semi-detached or detached houses with gardens). Lower housing density than the inner city. Often home to families seeking quieter environments.

4. The Rural-Urban Fringe

• Location: The edge of the city, where urban uses meet the countryside.
• Characteristics: Land is cheaper and more plentiful. Contains uses that need a lot of space, such as airports, large retail parks, golf courses, major roads (motorways), and continued agricultural land.

Section 3: Challenges in LICs and NEEs

Rapid, unplanned urbanisation in LICs and NEEs creates immense pressure on resources and infrastructure.

3.1 The Rise of Slums and Squatter Settlements

When people migrate faster than the city can build homes, they are forced to live in unofficial housing known as Slums (or favelas in Brazil, bustees in India, barriadas in Peru). These are squatter settlements because people build them illegally on land they don't own.

Key Problems in Slums:

• Overcrowding: Very high population density, leading to quick spread of disease.
• Lack of Services: No clean running water, sanitation (sewers), or reliable electricity.
• Poor Construction: Homes are often built from scrap materials (wood, plastic sheets), making them unsafe in poor weather or fires.
• Insecurity: Residents can be evicted at any time as they don't own the land.

3.2 Employment and Infrastructure Challenges

Many migrants cannot find stable, formal jobs in factories or offices. They often turn to the Informal Sector.

The Informal Sector: This involves jobs that are unregulated, untaxed, and usually small-scale. Examples include street vending, shining shoes, collecting and selling rubbish, or driving illegal taxis.

• Benefit: It provides an income, however small.
• Drawback: It offers no legal protection, no fixed wage, and no sick pay or insurance.

Other challenges include:

• Traffic Congestion: Poor public transport and too many cars lead to gridlock and air pollution.
• Waste Disposal: Cities generate huge amounts of waste, and inadequate systems lead to mountains of uncollected rubbish.

3.3 Solutions to Slum Problems

Governments and NGOs often use two main strategies to improve living conditions:

1. Self-Help Schemes: The city government provides materials (like concrete, roofing tiles, and basic training) and micro-loans, but residents do the building and improvements themselves. This is cheaper and gives residents a sense of ownership.
2. Site and Service Schemes: The government prepares the land (putting in basic infrastructure like water pipes, electricity lines, and paved roads) before people move in. Residents then build their own homes on these serviced plots.

Section 4: Challenges in HICs (High-Income Countries)

While HICs generally have better infrastructure, they face challenges related to aging populations, maintaining infrastructure, and managing land use conflicts.

4.1 Traffic Congestion and Housing Shortages

• Congestion: High car ownership leads to rush-hour traffic jams, increasing stress, pollution, and wasted time/fuel.
• Lack of Affordable Housing: High demand pushes housing prices up, forcing lower-income people out of the city centre.

4.2 Managing Urban Sprawl and Land Use

As cities grow, they expand outwards, consuming the countryside. This is called Urban Sprawl.

Brownfield vs. Greenfield Sites

In HICs, governments must decide where to build new homes:

1. Brownfield Sites: Land that has been previously built on (e.g., an abandoned factory site or old railway land).
   • Benefit: Reduces urban sprawl; closer to the CBD and existing infrastructure.
   • Drawback: Often expensive to clear pollution (contamination) and demolish old buildings.
2. Greenfield Sites: Land that has never been built on (e.g., farmland or natural green space) – typically on the Rural-Urban Fringe.
   • Benefit: Cheaper and quicker to build on; no demolition or cleanup needed.
   • Drawback: Destroys wildlife habitats; increases commuting distances; contributes to urban sprawl.

4.3 Urban Deprivation and Segregation

Even in wealthy cities, there are huge differences in wealth and quality of life. Urban Deprivation refers to areas with poor housing, high unemployment, and low educational achievement.

Segregation often occurs when groups of people (usually based on income or ethnicity) choose or are forced to live separately from the rest of the population, often concentrated in the most deprived inner-city areas.

Section 5: Creating Sustainable Urban Environments

A sustainable city is one that can meet the needs of its current residents without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

5.1 Sustainable Transport Solutions

Cities aim to reduce reliance on private cars by promoting alternatives:

• Integrated Public Transport: Linking trains, trams, and buses so that travel is easy and affordable. (Example: Curitiba, Brazil, is famous for its efficient bus rapid transit system.)
• Cycle Networks: Creating safe, dedicated cycle lanes to encourage cycling for commuting.
• Pedestrianisation: Creating car-free zones (e.g., shopping streets) to make walking safer and more pleasant.

5.2 Waste and Energy Management

• Recycling and Composting: Reducing the amount of waste sent to landfill sites (which pollute the land).
• Energy Efficiency: Insulating homes and using energy-efficient appliances to reduce energy consumption.
• Renewable Energy: Using solar panels or wind turbines on city buildings to generate cleaner power.

5.3 Creating Green Spaces

Parks, rooftop gardens, and urban farms are essential for sustainability:

• They act as the 'lungs' of the city, improving air quality.
• They reduce the risk of flooding by absorbing rainwater.
• They provide habitats for wildlife and places for residents to relax (improving well-being).

Congratulations! You have now covered the core concepts of Urban Environments. Remember to use real-world examples whenever you answer a question to show the examiner you understand how these ideas work in practice.

Keep up the hard work—you've got this!