Welcome to Topic D: Learning Theories and Development!
Hello future psychologists! This chapter is incredibly important because it explores the foundation of how humans (and animals) acquire new behaviors, habits, and fears. Understanding learning theories gives you a powerful tool to explain everything from why we bite our nails to how we learn complex skills like driving.
Don't worry if some of the terms seem a little technical at first. We will break down these complex ideas into simple, digestible steps, making sure you can confidently tackle these concepts in your exams!
What We Will Cover:
- Classical Conditioning (Learning by Association)
- Operant Conditioning (Learning by Consequences)
- Social Learning Theory (Learning by Observation)
1. Classical Conditioning (Learning by Association)
Classical Conditioning (CC) was famously discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who was actually studying the digestive system of dogs. He noticed that the dogs started salivating *before* they even saw the food—just hearing the lab assistant's footsteps was enough!
Classical conditioning is a type of learning where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, such that one stimulus (which was previously neutral) starts eliciting the same response as the other stimulus.
The Key Elements (The ABCs of CC)
To understand Pavlov, we need to know five key terms. Think of learning a new language—you need the vocabulary first!
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Something that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning. (Example: Food)
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural, unlearned reaction to the UCS. (Example: Salivation to the food)
- Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response. (Example: A bell sound)
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): What the NS becomes after it has been repeatedly paired with the UCS. It is now learned. (Example: The bell sound after pairing)
- Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus. (Example: Salivation to the bell sound alone)
Memory Aid: 'U' stands for Unlearned/Unconditioned (Natural). 'C' stands for Conditioned (Learned).
The Process of Conditioning (Step-by-Step)
The process happens in three main phases:
Phase 1: Before Conditioning
- UCS (Food) -> UCR (Salivation)
- NS (Bell) -> No Response
Phase 2: During Conditioning (Acquisition)
- The NS (Bell) is repeatedly presented immediately *before* the UCS (Food).
- NS + UCS -> UCR (Salivation)
Phase 3: After Conditioning
- The NS has become the CS.
- CS (Bell) -> CR (Salivation)
Associated Concepts of Classical Conditioning
Learning isn't always permanent or perfectly specific. These concepts explain the changes in the conditioned response over time:
- Extinction: When the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the CR eventually fades away. (If the bell rings many times and no food appears, the dog stops salivating.)
- Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, the CR may suddenly reappear when the CS is presented again, although usually weaker. This shows the learned association isn't fully destroyed, just suppressed.
- Stimulus Generalisation: The CR is produced in response to stimuli similar to the original CS. (If the dog learns to salivate to a low-pitched bell, it might also salivate to a slightly higher-pitched chime.)
- Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between the CS and other stimuli that have not been paired with the UCS. (The dog only salivates to the specific frequency of the original bell, ignoring sirens or whistles.)
Key Takeaway for CC: Classical conditioning explains how we develop emotional responses, like phobias (fear is learned by associating a neutral object with a frightening experience) and certain tastes/aversions. It's all about making automatic associations.
2. Operant Conditioning (Learning by Consequences)
Unlike Pavlov, who focused on automatic, reflective responses, B.F. Skinner focused on voluntary behaviours—actions that we perform to gain rewards or avoid punishment. Operant Conditioning (OC) is learning based on the consequences of our actions.
Skinner summarized this brilliantly: "The behaviour operates on the environment to produce a consequence."
The Core Concepts: Reinforcement and Punishment
The biggest mistake students make is confusing the four types of consequences. Remember, Reinforcement always increases the likelihood of a behaviour recurring, and Punishment always decreases it.
I. Reinforcement (Increases Behaviour)
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to encourage a behaviour.
- Example: Giving a student praise (adding a pleasant thing) when they answer correctly, making them more likely to answer again.
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to encourage a behaviour. (This is *not* punishment!)
- Example: Turning off a loud, annoying alarm (removing the unpleasant noise) by putting on your seatbelt. You are more likely to put on your seatbelt next time to avoid the noise.
II. Punishment (Decreases Behaviour)
- Positive Punishment (Punishment by Application): Adding something unpleasant to discourage a behaviour.
- Example: Giving a child extra chores (adding something unpleasant) after they misbehave.
- Negative Punishment (Punishment by Removal): Removing something pleasant to discourage a behaviour.
- Example: Taking away a teenager’s phone (removing a pleasant thing) after they break curfew.
Common Mistake Alert!
Always define 'Positive' as 'Adding' (P = Plus) and 'Negative' as 'Subtracting' (N = Negate/Remove). It has nothing to do with 'good' or 'bad'.
Schedules of Reinforcement
How often we reinforce a behaviour dramatically affects how quickly it is learned and, crucially, how resistant it is to extinction.
Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement
- Continuous Reinforcement: The behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs. This leads to very fast learning, but also very fast extinction (the organism quickly notices when the reward stops).
- Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: The behaviour is reinforced only some of the time. This takes longer to learn, but the behaviour is much more resistant to extinction. This is why gambling is so addictive—you don't expect a win every time!
Shaping
How do we teach complex behaviours (like driving a car or using a sophisticated tool) if we have to wait for the complete behaviour to happen naturally before rewarding it? We use shaping.
Shaping (or successive approximation) is reinforcing behaviours that are increasingly similar to the final desired behaviour. We reward small steps towards the goal.
Example: If you want a pigeon to press a specific lever, you first reward it for turning toward the lever. Then, only reward it for walking near the lever. Finally, only reward it for pressing the lever.
Key Takeaway for OC: Operant conditioning explains why we repeat successful actions and avoid actions that lead to pain or loss. It is the basis of habit formation.
3. Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Developed by Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (SLT) acts as a crucial bridge between behaviourist theories (CC and OC) and cognitive psychology. Bandura argued that purely external rewards and punishments cannot explain all learning. We learn a great deal simply by watching others.
SLT suggests that learning occurs through observation and imitation of models, especially when the learner sees the model being rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).
Vicarious Reinforcement
This is a key cognitive concept in SLT. Vicarious reinforcement means learning from the consequences experienced by a model, rather than experiencing them directly.
Example: If you see your older sibling get grounded (punished) for sneaking out, you are less likely to sneak out yourself, even though you were not the one punished.
The Role of Mediational Processes
SLT is considered 'social' because it involves others, and 'cognitive' because it requires internal mental processes (the mediational processes) between observing the behaviour and imitating it.
Bandura outlined four essential mediational processes, often remembered using the mnemonic ARRM:
- Attention: To learn, the observer must pay attention to the model's behaviour. We are more likely to attend to models who are attractive, high-status, or similar to us.
- Retention: The observer must be able to remember the observed behaviour. The behaviour is stored in memory, usually as a mental image or verbal description.
- Reproduction (Motor Reproduction): The observer must be physically and mentally capable of reproducing the behaviour. You can watch a pro gymnast do a triple flip (Retention), but you might not have the physical ability (Reproduction).
- Motivation: The observer must have the desire or will to perform the behaviour. This is often driven by the expectation of rewards (e.g., vicarious reinforcement).
Did you know? Bandura’s famous Bobo Doll study showed that children exposed to an aggressive adult model were more likely to imitate the aggressive acts toward the doll, demonstrating observational learning in action.
The Concept of Self-Efficacy
A key part of Bandura's later work is Self-Efficacy.
Self-Efficacy is the belief in one’s own competence to successfully execute a course of action required to produce a given outcome.
If a student believes they are good at Maths (high self-efficacy), they are more likely to attempt and persist with difficult Maths problems, even if they see a model fail. If they have low self-efficacy, they are less likely to try. This demonstrates that internal cognitions are crucial in development.
Key Takeaway for SLT: SLT moves beyond simple stimulus-response links. It highlights that we are active processors of information, choosing when and what to imitate based on our internal thoughts (ARRM) and our belief in our ability (Self-Efficacy).
Quick Review: Linking the Learning Theories
It is useful to compare how the three theories differ in their focus:
- Classical Conditioning: Focuses on involuntary responses (reflexes) linked to stimuli *before* the action.
- Operant Conditioning: Focuses on voluntary actions governed by consequences *after* the action.
- Social Learning Theory: Focuses on learning through observation and the vital role of cognitive mediation (thoughts and expectations) between stimulus and response.
Keep up the hard work! Mastering these three theories is foundational to understanding almost every area of Psychology.