Welcome to Study Notes: 1C – The World Divided: Superpower Relations, 1943–90

Hello future historians! This chapter is incredibly important. You’re about to study the period known as the Cold War—a 45-year ideological conflict that shaped the modern world. It wasn't 'cold' because nobody died; it was 'cold' because the two main rivals, the USA and the USSR, never directly fought each other (they used proxies instead!).

We will break down this complex rivalry, which saw the world teeter on the edge of nuclear destruction, into manageable sections. Don't worry if the dates seem overwhelming; we'll focus on the major turning points!

Key Focus: Two Opposing Ideologies

At the heart of the Cold War was the clash between two completely different ways of running a country:

  • The USA and the West (Capitalism): Belief in democracy, free elections, private ownership of business, and individual freedom (liberalism).
  • The USSR and the East (Communism): Belief in a single-party state (no free elections), state ownership of all resources, and collective welfare over individual rights (Marxism-Leninism).

Analogy: Imagine two magnets with opposite poles. They repel each other fiercely. This was the USA and the USSR after 1945.

Part I: The Origins of the Divide (1943–49)

The Grand Alliance Cracks

During World War II, the USA, Britain, and the USSR were allies against Nazi Germany (the 'Grand Alliance'). But as the war ended, their differences became impossible to ignore.

1. Wartime Conferences (Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam)

Tehran (1943) & Yalta (Feb 1945): These meetings were relatively cooperative. Roosevelt (USA), Churchill (UK), and Stalin (USSR) agreed on defeating Germany, creating the United Nations, and dividing Germany temporarily.

Potsdam (July 1945): The Turning Point

  • New Faces: Truman replaced Roosevelt (who had died), and Attlee replaced Churchill mid-conference. Truman was far more suspicious of Stalin.
  • The Bomb: Truman learned during the conference that the USA had successfully tested the atomic bomb. He informed Stalin, which instantly heightened tension and Soviet suspicion.
  • Poland: Deep disagreement over the future of Eastern Europe, particularly Poland, where Stalin insisted on a communist government.

Key Takeaway: Cooperation ended at Potsdam. Both superpowers now saw each other as potential threats.

2. Containment and the Iron Curtain

By 1946, Stalin had placed Soviet-friendly communist governments in almost all Eastern European countries (known as the Soviet Sphere of Influence or the 'buffer zone').

  • The Iron Curtain (1946): Former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill declared that an "iron curtain" had descended across Europe, dividing the democratic West from the communist East. This phrase officially recognised the division.
  • The Truman Doctrine (1947): The US policy stating that America must stop the spread of Communism. This was the start of the policy known as Containment. Truman promised financial aid to any country threatened by Communism (starting with Greece and Turkey).
  • The Marshall Plan (1947): A massive US economic aid package offered to all European countries to help them rebuild after WWII. Why? The US believed poor economies were easy targets for Communist takeover.

Soviet Response:

  • Cominform (1947): The Communist Information Bureau, used to coordinate and control the Communist parties in the Soviet bloc.
  • Comecon (1949): The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the Soviet answer to the Marshall Plan, intended to coordinate the economies of the Eastern bloc.
3. The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–49)

Berlin, although deep inside the Soviet zone of Germany, was also divided into four sectors (US, UK, France, USSR).

  • The Crisis: The Western powers introduced a new currency (Deutschmark) into their zones of Germany and West Berlin without consulting the USSR. Stalin viewed this as an aggressive step towards creating a strong, independent West Germany.
  • The Blockade: In response, Stalin blockaded all land and rail access into West Berlin. He hoped to starve the Western allies out.
  • The Airlift: The Western Allies began the Berlin Airlift, flying essential supplies (food, coal, medicine) into West Berlin for 11 months.
  • Outcome: Stalin called off the blockade in May 1949. The airlift was a major victory for the West and significantly boosted anti-Soviet sentiment.

Quick Review: The Initial Divide (1949)

The failure of the Blockade led directly to the formal division of Germany and the solidification of military alliances:

West: Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) created. Formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, 1949)—a defensive alliance against the USSR.
East: German Democratic Republic (GDR) created.

Memory Aid: Remember the core concept of this era is C-C-M (Containment, Cominform, Marshall Plan).

Part II: Crisis, Escalation, and Nuclear Fear (1950–62)

The Age of Proxy Wars and Alliances

A Proxy War is when the superpowers don't fight directly but support opposing sides in a conflict elsewhere. The first major example was the Korean War.

1. The Korean War (1950–53)
  • North Korea (communist, backed by USSR/China) invaded South Korea (backed by the USA/UN).
  • The USA successfully demonstrated its policy of Containment, preventing the spread of Communism beyond the 38th Parallel.
  • Impact: The war increased military spending globally and confirmed to both sides that military alliances were essential.
2. The Formation of Military Blocs
  • NATO (1949): The West’s alliance.
  • The Warsaw Pact (1955): The Soviet response to NATO, solidifying the military command of the Eastern bloc states.

Did you know? The development of the Hydrogen Bomb (H-bomb) in the early 1950s—far more powerful than the atomic bomb—introduced the terrifying concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Both sides knew that a nuclear war meant the destruction of both, which ironically became a deterrent.

3. Khrushchev and Crises in Europe (1956–61)

After Stalin died in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev took power. He denounced Stalin's brutality (a process called De-Stalinisation) and promoted the idea of "Peaceful Co-existence" with the West—suggesting the two systems could compete without going to war.

The Hungarian Uprising (1956):

  • Encouraged by De-Stalinisation, Hungarians demanded freedom and announced they would leave the Warsaw Pact.
  • Khrushchev, fearing the loss of Soviet control, brutally crushed the uprising with tanks.
  • Key Takeaway: Peaceful Co-existence applied only to relations with the West; the USSR would not tolerate freedom in its satellite states.

The Berlin Wall (1961):

  • Between 1949 and 1961, millions of skilled workers and professionals defected (fled) from Communist East Germany to West Berlin. This was an economic embarrassment for the USSR.
  • Khrushchev ordered the construction of a physical barrier (the Berlin Wall) to stop the flow of refugees.
  • The Wall symbolised the totalitarian nature of the East and became the most visible symbol of the Cold War division.
4. The Cuban Missile Crisis (CMC, 1962)

This was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war. Fidel Castro's Cuba, a Communist ally 90 miles off the coast of Florida, housed Soviet nuclear missiles.

The Steps to Crisis:

  1. Discovery: US spy planes (U-2s) discovered Soviet missile sites being built in Cuba.
  2. Kennedy’s Response: President John F. Kennedy announced a naval "quarantine" (blockade) of Cuba to stop Soviet ships carrying more missiles.
  3. The 13 Days: The world waited as Soviet ships approached the quarantine line. Any engagement would likely have led to war.
  4. Resolution: Khrushchev backed down. He agreed to remove the missiles if the USA publicly promised not to invade Cuba. (Secretly, the US also agreed to remove old US missiles from Turkey).

The Legacy of CMC: Both superpowers realised how terrifyingly close they had come to global destruction. This fear directly paved the way for a period of improved communication and reduced tension.

Part III: Confrontation and Co-existence (Détente, 1963–79)

The period following the Cuban Missile Crisis is known as Détente (a French word meaning the "easing of strained relations"). The superpowers started talking more and trying to manage their nuclear rivalry.

Why Détente Happened:

  1. Fear of MAD: CMC showed that brinkmanship was too dangerous.
  2. Economic Burden: The arms race was incredibly expensive for both sides, especially the USSR, which was falling behind economically.
  3. New Leadership: Richard Nixon (USA) and Leonid Brezhnev (USSR) sought stability.
1. Arms Limitation Treaties

A key focus was controlling the arms race:

  • Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963): Banned nuclear weapon testing in the atmosphere, underwater, and in space (but allowed underground tests).
  • Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT, 1968): Countries that had nuclear weapons agreed not to spread the technology to others.
  • SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, 1972): Restricted the number of ballistic missile launchers each side could have. A symbolic step showing willingness to cooperate.
2. The Helsinki Accords (1975)

The high point of Détente. Signed by 35 nations, these Accords established three "Baskets" of agreements:

  • Basket 1 (Security): Recognised the existing borders in Europe (legitimising Soviet control over the Eastern Bloc).
  • Basket 2 (Cooperation): Called for greater economic and technological links between East and West.
  • Basket 3 (Human Rights): Pledged all countries to respect human rights, including freedom of speech and movement. (This basket later became a major source of tension for the USSR, as it encouraged dissidents within the Soviet bloc.)

Common Mistake to Avoid: Détente did not mean the end of the rivalry. Both sides still tried to gain influence (e.g., in the Middle East and Africa), but they avoided direct military conflict with each other.

Part IV: The Second Cold War and Collapse (1979–90)

The End of Détente

Détente collapsed at the end of the 1970s, triggered primarily by a major aggressive move by the USSR.

1. Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)
  • The USSR invaded Afghanistan to prop up a struggling pro-Soviet government.
  • The USA, led by President Jimmy Carter, viewed this as a clear violation of détente and Soviet expansionism outside its recognised sphere.
  • US Response: The US boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics and dramatically increased military spending.
2. Reagan’s Confrontation (1981–89)

The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 marked a return to aggressive anti-communism, beginning the "Second Cold War."

  • "Evil Empire": Reagan publicly condemned the USSR as the "focus of evil in the modern world," abandoning the cautious language of Détente.
  • SDI ('Star Wars'): Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a hugely ambitious project to build a space-based anti-missile shield. This terrified the Soviets because they could not afford to compete in this new technological arms race.
3. Gorbachev and the Reforms (1985–90)

When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985, the USSR was crippled by economic stagnation. He realised the USSR could not afford the arms race and needed drastic reform. He was key to ending the Cold War.

Gorbachev introduced two fundamental policies:

  1. Glasnost (Openness): Encouraged free speech, transparency, and public debate. This allowed people to openly criticise the Communist Party for the first time.
  2. Perestroika (Restructuring): Introduced elements of market capitalism and decentralisation to boost the failing Soviet economy.
4. The Unravelling of the Soviet Bloc

Gorbachev’s most critical decision was his refusal to use force to maintain Soviet control over Eastern Europe (unlike 1956 and 1968).

  • Sinatra Doctrine: Gorbachev joked that satellite states could now do things "their way" (a reversal of the Brezhnev Doctrine, which had insisted the USSR would intervene to protect socialism).
  • The Fall of the Wall (November 1989): With Soviet military backing removed, the East German government was forced to allow citizens to cross into West Berlin. The tearing down of the Berlin Wall symbolised the end of the Iron Curtain.
  • 1990–91: Communist governments collapsed across Eastern Europe. In December 1991, the USSR formally dissolved, marking the end of the superpower rivalry and the Cold War.

Final Key Takeaway: The Cold War ended not through military defeat, but because the Soviet system could not sustain its ideological and economic competition with the West, and Gorbachev chose reform over repression.

Historical Interpretations Note

Remember that the interpretations section of your exam requires you to consider why historians disagree. Common Cold War interpretation debates include:

  • Orthodox View: Blames Stalin and the USSR for aggressive expansionism (US was reacting defensively).
  • Revisionist View: Blames the USA for aggressive economic imperialism (Marshall Plan) and provocative policies (atomic bomb, Truman Doctrine).
  • Post-Revisionist View: Argues that mutual misunderstanding, security fears, and miscommunication on both sides caused the conflict, rather than malicious intent from just one side.

When studying, always ask: Which side looks more aggressive in this specific event (e.g., Yalta vs. Afghanistan)?