Welcome to Russia, 1917–91: From Lenin to Yeltsin!

Hello future historians! This chapter is one of the most exciting, yet complex, studies in modern history. We are tracing the journey of Russia, which transformed from a vast empire into the world’s first communist state, lasted 74 years, and then dramatically collapsed.

Understanding this period (1917–1991) requires you to track massive shifts across three main areas:
1. Political Change: How power was held and transferred (Dictatorship, Totalitarianism, Reform).
2. Economic Change: Moving from private ownership to state control (War Communism, NEP, 5-Year Plans, Stagnation).
3. Social Change: The impact of policies on ordinary citizens (Terror, Censorship, Standards of Living).

Don't worry if the number of leaders seems overwhelming—we will break down the period into clear, manageable phases. By the end, you'll be ready to evaluate sources and analyse the dramatic changes that shaped the 20th century.

Phase 1: The Revolutionary State (Lenin, 1917–24)

The Consolidation of Bolshevik Power

In October 1917, the Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) seized power in Russia. Their initial challenge was not just winning the revolution, but surviving the aftermath.

Key Actions by Lenin (1917–1918):

  • Peace, Land, and Bread: The rallying cry. He immediately issued the Decree on Land (giving peasants ownership of land they worked) and sought peace with Germany (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918), though this cost Russia huge territories.
  • Crushing Opposition: When the Bolsheviks failed to win the elections for the Constituent Assembly, Lenin simply shut it down. He established the Cheka (secret police) to enforce control, marking the beginning of the use of terror against internal enemies.

The Civil War and War Communism (1918–21)

The Bolsheviks (the 'Reds') faced numerous opponents (the 'Whites')—Tsarists, liberals, socialists, and foreign powers—in the brutal Civil War.

To win the war, Lenin implemented War Communism. Think of this as an extreme, emergency measure where the state took complete control of the economy.

  • Nationalisation: All industry and banks were controlled by the state.
  • Grain Requisitioning: Peasants were forced to surrender surplus grain to feed the Red Army and the cities. This led to widespread starvation and resistance.
  • Banning Private Trade: All markets were technically illegal.

Common Mistake to Avoid: War Communism was implemented due to the necessities of war, not because it was the ideal communist economic model. It caused immense hardship, culminating in the 1921 famine.

The New Economic Policy (NEP)

The suffering caused by War Communism led to revolts (most famously the Kronstadt Uprising in 1921). Lenin realised he had to step back from pure communist ideals to save the regime.

The NEP (New Economic Policy) was a temporary 'tactic retreat' or a 'strategic pause' allowing for limited capitalism:
1. Agriculture: Grain requisitioning stopped; peasants could sell surplus food for profit.
2. Small Businesses: Small private shops and workshops were allowed to operate for profit (e.g., shoe repair, market stalls).
3. Large Industry: Still controlled by the state ("The commanding heights").

The NEP succeeded in restoring the economy but created political issues: it was seen by many hardline Bolsheviks as a betrayal of communist principles, and it created a new class of wealthy peasants (Kulaks) and traders (Nepmen).

Key Takeaway: Lenin used pragmatic, often brutal, methods to ensure the survival of the Bolshevik state, shifting rapidly between radical ideology (War Communism) and limited capitalism (NEP).

Phase 2: Totalitarian Control (Stalin, 1924–53)

The Rise of Stalin and the End of NEP

Following Lenin’s death in 1924, a power struggle ensued. Stalin, mastering the bureaucratic machine of the Party, defeated his main rival, Leon Trotsky, by arguing for Socialism in One Country (focusing on securing the revolution in the USSR first, rather than Trotsky's 'Permanent Revolution'). By 1928, Stalin had cemented his power.

The Economic Revolution: Industrialisation and Collectivisation

Stalin argued that the NEP was too slow and weak. The USSR needed to industrialise rapidly to defend itself and prove the superiority of the communist system.

I. The Five-Year Plans (Industry)

The Plans (starting in 1928) aimed for hyper-industrialisation. Goals were set centrally (by Gosplan, the state planning agency).
*Think of it this way:* If the NEP was a bicycle, the Five-Year Plans were a supersonic jet – ambitious, fast, but extremely dangerous to fly.

Key Features:

  • Focus on heavy industry (steel, coal, oil, machinery) rather than consumer goods.
  • Use of slave labour (the Gulag system) to achieve difficult targets.
  • Massive growth in production, but often poor quality and inefficient methods.

II. Collectivisation (Agriculture)

This policy forcibly merged millions of small, individual farms into large, state-owned farms (Kolkhozes).

The Reasons for Collectivisation:
1. To fund industrialisation (extracting grain cheaply from peasants and selling it abroad).
2. To destroy the economic power of the Kulaks (wealthier peasants who resisted the state).

The process was brutal. Peasants often slaughtered their livestock rather than handing them over. This, combined with high state quotas, led to widespread famine (Holodomor in Ukraine, 1932–33), killing millions.

The Great Terror and Purges (1930s)

Stalin created a totalitarian state—a system where the government controls every aspect of public and private life. This required absolute obedience, enforced by terror.

The Great Terror was a period of mass arrests, executions, and deportations to the Gulag labour camps.

  • Purges: Targets included the Old Bolsheviks (who knew Lenin), the military high command, industrial managers, and eventually, ordinary citizens.
  • Cult of Personality: Stalin built himself up as the infallible leader and father figure of the nation, demanding total loyalty.

Did you know? Historians estimate that up to 20 million people may have been victims of execution or forced labour under Stalin, illustrating the sheer scale of the terror.

Quick Review: Stalin achieved rapid industrialisation and agricultural change, but at an unprecedented human cost, establishing a vast apparatus of totalitarian control based on fear.

Phase 3: De-Stalinisation and Reform (Khrushchev, 1953–64)

The Thaw and the Secret Speech

After Stalin’s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev eventually emerged as the new leader, defeating rivals like Beria and Malenkov. He marked a significant shift away from the intense violence of the Stalin era.

The defining moment was the Secret Speech delivered at the 20th Party Congress in 1956.
*Analogy:* This speech was like opening a window in a stuffy, scary room. Khrushchev denounced Stalin's Cult of Personality and the crimes committed during the Purges.

The Results of De-Stalinisation:
1. Relaxation: Thousands of Gulag prisoners were released (though they were not fully rehabilitated).
2. Censorship Eased: A period known as 'The Thaw' allowed some greater freedom in arts and literature.
3. Political Risk: The speech shocked the Soviet bloc and contributed to uprisings in Hungary later that year.

Economic Ambitions and Failures

Khrushchev focused on improving the standard of living, moving resources towards consumer goods, and agriculture—the sector he knew best.

The most famous attempt was the Virgin Lands Scheme (1954), which involved ploughing up previously uncultivated land in Kazakhstan and Siberia to increase grain output dramatically.

Step-by-Step Failure:
1. Initial successes led to high enthusiasm.
2. The soil quality was poor and irrigation was neglected.
3. Climate proved unsuitable (dust storms and droughts).
4. By the early 1960s, the scheme was deemed a failure, necessitating grain imports.

Khrushchev was often criticised for his impulsive, "hare-brained" schemes and his tendency to decentralise economic decision-making, which alienated the established party elite (the Nomenklatura).

The Fall of Khrushchev (1964)

Khrushchev’s erratic policies (both foreign and domestic) and his challenging of the Party bureaucracy led to a bloodless coup by his colleagues in 1964. They were tired of his constant reforms and his tendency to interfere.

Key Takeaway: Khrushchev attempted to reform the Soviet system by ending the terror and focusing on consumer welfare, but his methods were too chaotic, leading to his removal by the conservative Party establishment.

Phase 4: Stagnation and Decline (Brezhnev and the Gerontocracy, 1964–85)

The Era of Stability (Brezhnev, 1964–82)

The leadership that replaced Khrushchev (led by Leonid Brezhnev) promised "The Stability of Cadres"—meaning no more wild policy changes or unexpected purges of the elite.

This period is sometimes called the Era of Stagnation. Stability was achieved, but at the cost of dynamism and reform.

Political Features:

  • Developed Socialism: The regime claimed the USSR was already a stable, 'developed' socialist society, implying that further radical change was unnecessary.
  • Nomenklatura Power: The Party elite (the Nomenklatura) solidified their power, enjoying high privileges and often holding posts for life. This resulted in low accountability and rampant corruption.
  • Gerontocracy: The ruling body (the Politburo) became dominated by old men (gerontocracy), who were resistant to change and often physically ill.

Economic and Social Problems

While the military sector remained strong (leading to nuclear parity with the USA), the consumer economy suffered badly.

  • Lack of Innovation: The planned economy struggled to adopt modern technology and respond to consumer demand. Factories produced goods nobody wanted, while basic items (like soap or meat) were often scarce.
  • Hidden Inflation: The state fixed prices, but poor quality goods meant people paid high prices for poor value, effectively creating a form of hidden inflation.
  • Alcoholism and Mortality: Living standards plateaued and then began to decline in some areas, leading to social problems and rising male mortality rates.

Think of it this way: The Soviet system under Brezhnev was like a very old train built for heavy lifting—it was huge and reliable, but it was slow, inefficient, and couldn't compete with the newer, faster passenger trains of the West.

Key Takeaway: Brezhnev brought political stability and ended destalinisation, but this inaction led to profound economic stagnation and technological decline, leaving the USSR ill-equipped for the late 20th century.

Phase 5: Collapse and Transition (Gorbachev to Yeltsin, 1985–91)

Gorbachev’s Radical Reforms (1985–91)

By 1985, the Party recognised that stagnation was terminal. Mikhail Gorbachev, a younger, energetic leader, came to power determined to reform the system, not destroy it.

Gorbachev’s strategy involved two major policy pillars: Perestroika and Glasnost.

I. Perestroika (Economic Restructuring)

Gorbachev introduced limited market reforms to make the economy more efficient and responsive.
*Examples:* Allowing small co-operatives (private businesses) and giving factory managers more autonomy from central planning.

The Paradox: Perestroika failed because it was half-hearted. Managers were given freedom but lacked resources, and the market reforms often worsened shortages in the short term, alienating the public.

II. Glasnost (Openness/Transparency)

Gorbachev allowed greater freedom of speech, reduced censorship, and permitted historical debate.
*Purpose:* To identify and honestly critique the flaws in the system so Perestroika could work.

The Danger: Glasnost led to a massive outpouring of criticism and revelations about Stalinist crimes, undermining the public’s faith in the Communist Party itself (the very institution Gorbachev was trying to save).

Political Democratisation and Collapse

Gorbachev introduced political reforms, most notably creating the Congress of People's Deputies (CPD) in 1989, featuring semi-free elections.

  • Democratisation: This allowed genuine, popular politicians (like Boris Yeltsin) to gain legitimacy outside the Communist Party structure. Yeltsin became Gorbachev’s most powerful rival.
  • Ending Party Monopoly: In 1990, Gorbachev abolished Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution, which guaranteed the Communist Party's monopoly on power. This effectively dismantled the political foundation of the USSR.
  • Ending the Soviet Bloc: Gorbachev withdrew military support for Eastern European communist regimes (the Sinatra Doctrine, meaning they could do it 'their way'). This led to the rapid collapse of communism across Eastern Europe in 1989.

The Final Act: The August Coup and Yeltsin’s Rise (1991)

Conservative hardliners (KGB, military leaders, and high-ranking Party officials) were terrified by the dissolution of Soviet power. In August 1991, they launched a coup to remove Gorbachev.

The Role of Yeltsin: Yeltsin, by now the elected President of the Russian Republic, famously rallied democratic opposition from atop a tank in Moscow. The coup collapsed within days due to lack of support.

The failure of the coup destroyed the remaining authority of the Communist Party and cemented Yeltsin’s position as the most powerful leader. By December 1991, Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared the USSR dissolved, and Gorbachev resigned. Boris Yeltsin became the leader of the new, independent Russian Federation.

Key Takeaway: Gorbachev’s reforms (Glasnost and Perestroika) were designed to save communism but instead unleashed political forces (like Yeltsin and nationalism) that hastened the USSR's total collapse in 1991.

Focus on Source Evaluation (Breadth Study Reminder)

When studying this long chapter for source evaluation, remember to always evaluate sources against the historical context you’ve just learned.

Questions to ask about any source from this period:
1. If the source is from the 1930s (Stalin): Is it likely propaganda (due to the Cult of Personality/censorship)? Does it reflect the official view or the harsh reality of Collectivisation/Terror?
2. If the source is from the 1950s (Khrushchev): Does it reflect the brief "Thaw," or is it written by the Party elite resisting De-Stalinisation?
3. If the source is from 1988–91 (Gorbachev): Is it celebrating Glasnost and open debate, or is it a conservative reaction (like the August Coup plotters)? Remember that after 1985, views became much more varied and critical.