Welcome to China, 1900–1976: A Century of Revolution
Hello future historians! This chapter, 1B: China, 1900–76, covers one of the most turbulent and fascinating periods in world history. You will be examining massive change—the collapse of an ancient empire, decades of bitter civil war, and the establishment of a powerful Communist state.
Because this is a Breadth Study, you need to understand the big picture: causation, consequence, change, and continuity. Don't just memorize dates; understand why things happened and the lasting impact they had. Let's dive in!
Part I: The Collapse of Imperial China and the Republic (1900–1916)
For thousands of years, China was ruled by emperors (known as Dynasties). By 1900, the ruling Qing Dynasty was dangerously weak. They were suffering from internal rebellion, corruption, and the humiliation of being bullied by foreign powers (like Britain, France, and Japan).
Key Causes of Collapse
- Foreign Humiliation: China was forced to sign unequal treaties and pay huge indemnities (compensation payments) after conflicts like the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion (1900).
- Internal Weakness: The Qing government was decentralized and highly corrupt. They couldn't reform fast enough to keep up with the modern world.
- Rise of Nationalism: Educated Chinese started calling for a modern, strong, unified nation, inspired by the ideas of Sun Yat-sen.
The 1911 Revolution (Double Tenth)
The final push came in October 1911. A spontaneous uprising, known as the Double Tenth Revolution, quickly spread. This marked the official end of over 2,000 years of Imperial rule.
- Result: The Republic of China was proclaimed in 1912.
- Problem: Sun Yat-sen lacked the military power to enforce his rule. He handed power to the powerful General Yuan Shikai.
Did you know? Sun Yat-sen is still seen as the founding father of modern China by both the Communists and the Nationalists!
Quick Review: 1911 Key Takeaway
The Qing Dynasty collapsed because it was rotten from the inside out and battered by foreign interference. The Republic was established, but it was weak and unstable from day one.
Part II: Chaos, Warlords, and the Rise of Rival Parties (1916–1937)
When Yuan Shikai died in 1916, there was no central government strong enough to replace him. China descended into the Warlord Era.
The Warlord Era (1916–1928)
Imagine the country breaking up into separate kingdoms, each ruled by local military commanders (Warlords) who fought constantly over territory and resources. This period was marked by immense suffering for the Chinese population.
The Two Rivals Emerge
Out of this chaos, two major political forces arose, both aiming to unify China:
- The Guomindang (GMD) – The Nationalists:
- Leader: After Sun Yat-sen's death, Chiang Kai-shek took over.
- Ideology: Nationalism, democracy, and people's welfare (based on Sun's Three Principles).
- Support Base: Urban merchants, landlords, and the middle class.
- The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) – The Communists:
- Key Leader: Mao Zedong, who believed true revolution must come from the massive peasant population, not the small urban working class (proletariat).
- Ideology: Marxism-Leninism adapted to the Chinese context (Maoism).
- Support Base: Rural peasantry.
Analogy Alert: The GMD and the CCP were like two rival teams fighting for control of the 'China Championship Trophy.' Sometimes they were forced to work together, but they always hated each other.
The First United Front and the Northern Expedition (1923–1927)
Initially, the CCP and GMD formed a First United Front to defeat the Warlords. Chiang Kai-shek led the successful Northern Expedition (1926–28), conquering and unifying large parts of China.
However, once the Warlords were defeated, the alliance shattered. Chiang Kai-shek feared the Communists' growing power. In 1927, he initiated the Shanghai Massacre, ruthlessly killing thousands of Communists and crushing urban CCP power.
The Long March (1934–1935)
The GMD tried to completely eliminate the CCP in their rural strongholds (Soviets). Chiang launched 'Extermination Campaigns.' In response, 86,000 Communists broke out and began the famous Long March—a gruelling 6,000-mile retreat over mountainous terrain.
Memory Aid: The Long March was militarily devastating (only about 8,000 survived), but politically brilliant. It solidified Mao Zedong as the undisputed leader of the CCP and served as a powerful propaganda story of heroic endurance for the Communist cause.
Key Takeaway: 1916–1937
The Warlord Era led directly to the formation of the two great rivals, the GMD and the CCP. The decade ended with the CCP surviving annihilation thanks to Mao's leadership during the Long March.
Part III: War with Japan and Communist Victory (1937–1949)
The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
Japan, seeking resources and territory, launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937. This terrible conflict forced the GMD and CCP to pause their Civil War and form the Second United Front.
- GMD's Role: Chiang Kai-shek’s forces bore the brunt of the conventional fighting, suffering massive losses.
- CCP's Role: The CCP used effective guerrilla warfare tactics against the Japanese in the countryside, protecting local populations and gaining huge popular support.
Common Mistake: Don't confuse the First and Second United Fronts! The first was against Warlords; the second was against Japan.
The Final Civil War (1945–1949)
After Japan’s surrender in 1945, the Civil War immediately resumed. Despite the GMD receiving significant financial and military aid from the USA, the CCP won surprisingly quickly.
Why Did the CCP Win? (Crucial for Source Evaluation)
- GMD Weakness: The GMD government was notorious for hyper-inflation and deep corruption. Soldiers were poorly paid, and officers often embezzled supplies.
- Peasant Support for CCP: Mao implemented popular policies, promising land reform (taking land from wealthy landlords and giving it to the poor). This gave the CCP massive civilian backing.
- Military Strategy: CCP General Lin Biao brilliantly used captured American supplies (from defeated GMD forces) and superior morale to win key battles.
- Propaganda: The CCP projected an image of moral purity and efficiency, contrasting sharply with the GMD's decadence.
On October 1, 1949, Chiang Kai-shek and the GMD remnants fled to Taiwan, and Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing.
Part IV: Mao's China: Consolidation and Transformation (1949–1976)
Mao’s initial goal was simple: solidify the CCP's control and transform China from a poor, agrarian society into a modern communist powerhouse.
A. Early Consolidation (1949–1957)
Mao moved quickly to eliminate internal opposition:
- Land Reform: Landlords were executed or publicly humiliated, and land was redistributed to the peasants. This brutally secured peasant loyalty.
- Social Changes: Laws promoting equality for women (e.g., the Marriage Law 1950) were introduced.
- Five-Year Plan (1953–57): Focused on developing heavy industry, largely based on the Soviet model. It was successful in boosting industrial output.
The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956)
In 1956, Mao announced the slogan: "Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend." He encouraged intellectuals and critics to offer constructive criticism of the Party.
The Trap: When the criticisms were far harsher than expected (attacking Party power and corruption), Mao reacted brutally. This was followed by the Anti-Rightist Campaign, where hundreds of thousands of critics were imprisoned, tortured, or sent to the countryside for 're-education.' The CCP’s control was now absolute.
Don't worry if this seems tricky at first: The Hundred Flowers Campaign demonstrated that Mao would tolerate no dissent once his power was established.
B. The Great Leap Forward (GLF) (1958–1962)
Mao wanted to leapfrog past industrialised nations and achieve true communism quickly. The GLF was a catastrophic experiment in rapid economic transformation.
Goals and Methods:
- Total Collectivization: All private land was abolished. Peasants were organized into massive People’s Communes, where everything (work, food, family life) was controlled by the state.
- Rapid Industrialization: Mao ordered citizens to produce steel using small, inefficient backyard furnaces, diverting labour from agriculture.
- Slogan: "Walking on Two Legs" (developing industry and agriculture simultaneously).
Consequences (The Great Famine):
The GLF was a horrific failure.
- False Reporting: Local officials inflated harvest figures to please Mao, meaning the state took too much grain.
- Famine: Mismanagement, lack of incentives, and diverting farmers to the backyard furnaces led to mass starvation. Estimates suggest 20–45 million people died.
- Mao Steps Back: Mao was eventually forced to take partial responsibility and step down from the role of Head of State, though he remained Chairman of the Party.
C. The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
After the GLF failure, pragmatists like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping took charge of the economy. Mao felt his revolutionary power was being diluted by 'Capitalist Roaders' (Party members who used market mechanisms).
To reclaim absolute authority and purify communism, Mao launched the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.
Goals and Methods:
- Purge the Party: Eliminate all 'revisionist' opponents (like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping).
- Mobilise Youth: Mao encouraged millions of young people, known as Red Guards, to attack the "Four Olds" (old customs, old culture, old habits, old ideas).
- The Little Red Book: Mao’s collection of quotations became a mandatory ideological text, granting him a near-godlike status.
Consequences:
The Cultural Revolution plunged China into a decade of anarchy and violence.
- Destruction: Historical artefacts, temples, and cultural sites were destroyed.
- Persecution: Millions of teachers, intellectuals, and former Party officials were purged, imprisoned, or killed.
- Military Intervention: The chaos eventually became so extreme that Mao had to use the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to restore order by the early 1970s.
Final Thought: Mao's Death (1976)
Mao Zedong died in September 1976. This event effectively brought the era of radical political campaigns (like the CR) to an end, paving the way for pragmatic leaders like Deng Xiaoping to take control and reform China's economy.
Review Box: Key Dates and Themes
| Date Range | Event | Historical Theme |
|---|---|---|
| 1911 | Double Tenth Revolution | End of Imperial Rule / Political Collapse |
| 1916–28 | Warlord Era | Political Disunity / Rise of Factions |
| 1934–35 | The Long March | Survival of CCP / Mao's Rise |
| 1949 | Establishment of the PRC | Civil War Consequence / Communist Victory |
| 1958–62 | Great Leap Forward (GLF) | Economic Failure / Mass Famine |
| 1966–76 | Cultural Revolution (CR) | Mao's Power Grab / Social Chaos |
Remember for Source Evaluation: When dealing with documents from the Maoist era (especially GLF and CR), always question the source's purpose. Was it propaganda designed to cover up failure, or a genuine expression of revolutionary zeal?
You’ve conquered a difficult century! Good luck with your revision!