History | 1A: The USA, Independence to Civil War, 1763–1865

Welcome to the American History Journey: 1763–1865!

Hi there! This chapter, The USA, Independence to Civil War, is one of the most exciting and important periods in world history. You’ll be tracking the amazing transformation of 13 scattered colonies into a unified (and then bitterly divided) nation.

Because this is part of the Thematic Study with Source Evaluation section, we need to understand not just what happened, but why it happened, and how different sources interpret these huge changes. Don't worry if some concepts like 'sectionalism' sound tricky—we'll break them down step-by-step!

Why is this Period Important?

• It establishes the foundations of modern American democracy (the Constitution).
• It highlights the enduring conflict between liberty and slavery.
• It shows how political compromises can fail spectacularly, leading to war.

Section 1: The Road to Revolution (1763–1776)

1.1 The End of Salutary Neglect

Before 1763, Britain generally left the colonies alone to manage their own affairs (a policy called Salutary Neglect). This changed dramatically after the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), known in North America as the French and Indian War.

The Problem: Britain won the war but was deep in debt. They decided the American colonists, who benefited greatly from the victory, should help pay for it.

The Colonists’ Reaction: They were used to self-governance and saw the new taxes as illegal interference. They believed only their own colonial assemblies had the right to tax them.

Key Concept: "No Taxation Without Representation"

Simple explanation: The colonists argued that since they did not elect representatives to the British Parliament in London, Parliament had no legal right to pass tax laws affecting them. It was a matter of rights, not just money!

1.2 Acts of Parliament and Colonial Resistance

Britain passed a series of laws to raise revenue and assert control, which the colonists met with increasing fury:

• Sugar Act (1764): Cracked down on smuggling and raised duties.
• Stamp Act (1765): Required stamps (a direct tax) on nearly all printed materials (legal documents, newspapers, playing cards). This was repealed quickly due to massive boycotts and protests (the Sons of Liberty).
• Townshend Acts (1767): Indirect taxes on imports like glass, lead, paper, and tea. Led to the Boston Massacre (1770).
• Tea Act (1773): Gave the East India Company a monopoly on tea sales, leading to the Boston Tea Party.
• Intolerable Acts (1774): Passed by Parliament to punish Massachusetts for the Tea Party. These closed the port of Boston and curtailed colonial self-governance. This was the final straw!

💥 Memory Aid (The Key Acts): Think STT: Stamp, Townshend, Tea.

Section 2: Creating the Republic (1776–1800)

2.1 War and Declaration (1775–1783)

Fighting began in 1775 (Lexington and Concord). The colonists formally declared their independence on July 4, 1776, citing Enlightenment ideas—especially those of John Locke.

Key Document: The Declaration of Independence (1776)

Authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it laid out the ideological foundation: all men are created equal, endowed with unalienable rights (Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness), and governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.

The war was won primarily due to persistence, George Washington’s leadership, and crucial military assistance from France (especially after the Battle of Saratoga, 1777).

2.2 The Challenge of Governance: Articles of Confederation

Immediately after independence, the states created a weak central government under the Articles of Confederation (1781).

Why it Failed:

• The national government couldn't directly tax states or individuals.
• There was no national court system or single executive leader.
• Every state had veto power over amendments, making change impossible.

Analogy: Imagine trying to run a sports team where the coach (central government) has to ask permission from every player (state) to buy new equipment. It led to economic chaos and domestic unrest (like Shays' Rebellion, 1786).

2.3 The Constitutional Convention (1787)

Delegates met in Philadelphia to fix the Articles but decided to scrap them entirely and write a new Constitution.

The Great Compromises:

• The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Resolved the fight between large states (who wanted representation based on population) and small states (who wanted equal representation). Result: Two-house legislature (Congress)—the Senate (equal representation) and the House of Representatives (proportional representation).
• The Three-Fifths Compromise: Addressed the question of how slaves should be counted for representation and taxation. Result: Every five slaves would count as three free persons. This was a morally troubling compromise that baked the issue of slavery into the heart of the new government.

Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists

The battle over ratifying the Constitution created the first major political divide:

• Federalists (e.g., Hamilton, Madison, Jay): Advocated for a strong central government. Wrote the influential Federalist Papers to persuade the public.
• Anti-Federalists (e.g., Patrick Henry): Feared a strong central government, worrying it would become too powerful, like the King they had just overthrown.

The Resolution: The Federalists agreed to add a Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments guaranteeing fundamental freedoms) to protect individual liberties. This secured ratification.

Section 3: Division and Expansion (1800–1850s)

3.1 Manifest Destiny and Territorial Growth

As the 19th century began, a belief system known as Manifest Destiny took hold. It was the idea that Americans were divinely ordained to settle the entire continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

• Louisiana Purchase (1803): President Jefferson bought a massive tract of land from France, doubling the size of the US and leading to further westward expansion.
• The Mexican-American War (1846–1848): Resulted in the US gaining the vast territory known as the Mexican Cession (including California, Nevada, Utah, etc.).

⚠️ Key Consequence: Every time the US gained new land, the fundamental question arose: Will this territory be free or slave? This fueled sectionalism (loyalty to one's region rather than the nation as a whole).

3.2 The Deepening Divide: Sectionalism and Slavery

The US developed into two distinct and opposing economic and social systems:

1. The Industrial North: Based on manufacturing, wage labour, commerce, and increasingly urban. Advocated for tariffs (taxes on imports) to protect their industries.
2. The Agrarian South: Based almost entirely on cash crops (especially cotton, thanks to the invention of the cotton gin) and reliant upon chattel slavery (the belief that slaves were property, not people). Opposed tariffs.

Did you know? The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 made short-staple cotton profitable and cemented the South’s reliance on slave labour for the next 70 years. It was an accidental catalyst for conflict.

3.3 Early Attempts at Compromise

To keep the balance of power in the Senate equal between slave and free states, a series of fragile agreements were made:

• Missouri Compromise (1820): Missouri entered as a slave state, Maine entered as a free state. Crucially, slavery was banned in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36°30’ Parallel line. This kept the peace for 30 years.
• Compromise of 1850: Handled the massive territory gained from Mexico. Key components: California entered as a free state, and the incredibly controversial Fugitive Slave Act was strengthened, requiring northern citizens and officials to actively help return runaway slaves.

Key Takeaway: These compromises didn't solve the problem; they merely postponed the conflict while tensions grew stronger.

Section 4: The Slide to War and Conflict (1850–1865)

4.1 Breakdown of Trust and Failed Laws

The period 1850–1860 saw the complete collapse of political trust between the North and South.

• Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): Proposed by Stephen Douglas. It repealed the 36°30' line established by the Missouri Compromise. Instead, it introduced Popular Sovereignty—letting the residents of Kansas and Nebraska territories vote on whether to be free or slave.
• Result: "Bleeding Kansas": Pro- and anti-slavery settlers rushed into Kansas, resulting in armed clashes, massacres, and essentially a mini-civil war, proving that Popular Sovereignty only led to violence.
• The Rise of the Republican Party: Formed in the mid-1850s, this new party was explicitly committed to preventing the extension of slavery into new territories.

4.2 The Crucial Legal Turning Point: The Dred Scott Decision (1857)

The Supreme Court ruled on the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford. The decision was devastating to abolitionists and moderates:

1. Dred Scott, a slave who had lived in free territory, was ruled to still be property (not a citizen) and therefore had no right to sue in federal court.
2. The Court ruled that Congress had no constitutional power to prohibit slavery in the territories (effectively voiding the Missouri Compromise and the core Republican platform).

Impact: This ruling meant that slavery could legally expand everywhere. The North viewed the Supreme Court as biased toward the South; the South felt vindicated.

4.3 The Final Triggers

• John Brown’s Raid (1859): An abolitionist, John Brown, led a failed raid on the Harpers Ferry armory, hoping to spark a slave revolt. He was executed. The North viewed him as a martyr; the South viewed him as proof that the North intended to incite violence against them.
• The Election of Abraham Lincoln (1860): Lincoln, the Republican candidate, won the presidency without winning a single electoral vote from the deep South. To the South, his election proved they had lost all political voice in the Union.

4.4 Secession and Civil War (1861–1865)

Beginning with South Carolina in December 1860, seven states seceded (left the Union) before Lincoln even took office, forming the Confederate States of America (CSA).

Start of the War: The attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861.

Key Developments:

• Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Issued by Lincoln, freeing slaves only in the rebellious Confederate states. While it didn't instantly free all slaves, it transformed the war from a fight to preserve the Union into a fight against slavery.
• Union Victory: Led by generals like Ulysses S. Grant, the superior resources and manpower of the Union eventually overwhelmed the Confederacy.

The End: Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse in April 1865. The Union was preserved, and slavery was destroyed, paving the way for the 13th Amendment.

Thematic Study Focus: Source Evaluation Tips

As you study this chapter, remember that source evaluation is key. When assessing a source about this era, always ask these three questions:

1. Utility (Usefulness): What does this source tell me about the event, opinion, or climate of the time? (E.g., A diary entry from a Northern merchant during the Stamp Act provides utility on economic impact.)
2. Reliability: Is the source accurate? Who is the author, what is their purpose, and are they in a position to know the facts? (E.g., A general's official report is high on reliability for troop movements but low on reliability for objective political analysis.)
3. Context and Tone: Does the source reflect the sectional bias (North/South) of the time? Is the language inflammatory, neutral, or optimistic?

Common Mistake to Avoid: Confusing usefulness with reliability. A highly biased and unreliable Confederate newspaper report is still highly useful for understanding Southern propaganda and attitudes!