Welcome to Chapter 1A: India, 1857–1948: The Raj to Partition

Hi there! This chapter covers one of the most transformative and complex periods in world history: the 90 years when Britain ruled India directly (The Raj) leading up to the trauma and triumph of Independence and Partition in 1947. This is a crucial breadth study, meaning you need a strong, clear understanding of the entire timeline, key players, and major events to succeed in source evaluation questions. Don't worry, we'll break it down into manageable steps!

Let's dive in!

Section 1: The Establishment of the British Raj (1857 onwards)

The year 1857 is our starting point. Everything changed due to the Great Revolt (often called the Sepoy Mutiny). Before 1857, India was largely governed by the East India Company (EIC)—a private trading organization. After the bloodshed of the Revolt, the British government decided the EIC was incapable of ruling effectively.

Key Shift: Company Rule to Crown Rule

The Government of India Act of 1858 officially ended the EIC's rule and transferred governance directly to Queen Victoria (the British Crown).

Analogy: Imagine the EIC was a management company that messed up a huge contract. The ultimate owner (the Crown) fired them and took over running the business directly.

The Structure of the Raj Administration:

  • The Secretary of State for India: A cabinet minister in London, responsible for India, advising the Queen/Parliament.
  • The India Council: A group of advisors in London (often retired British officials from India) who assisted the Secretary of State.
  • The Viceroy: The Queen's direct representative in India. He was the most powerful person on the ground, essentially acting as the Emperor's deputy. (The title ‘Viceroy’ means ‘in place of the King’).
Defining the Two Indias

It is vital to understand that India was not one unified entity under the Raj:

1. British India:

  • Territories governed directly by the British (e.g., Bengal, Punjab, Bombay Presidency).
  • Ruled by British civil servants (The ICS – Indian Civil Service).

2. Princely States:

  • About 565 semi-autonomous states (e.g., Hyderabad, Kashmir, Mysore).
  • Governed by Indian rulers (Maharajas or Nawabs).
  • They had signed treaties with the British, agreeing to accept the Paramountcy (supreme authority) of the Crown, especially in foreign policy and defence.

Key Takeaway (Section 1): The Raj established centralized British control (Viceroy/Secretary of State) but maintained local Indian rulers in the Princely States to reduce administrative burden and potential resistance.

Section 2: The Seeds of Nationalism and Early Reforms (1885–1919)

The Birth of the Indian National Congress (INC)

The rise of modern education (English medium) under the British created a new class of educated Indians who learned about concepts like democracy, self-determination, and liberty. In 1885, the Indian National Congress (INC) was founded.

Did you know? The INC was initially founded by a retired British official, A.O. Hume, intended as a loyal platform for educated Indians to discuss issues with the government.

Moderates vs. Extremists

By the turn of the century, the INC split ideologically:

  • Moderates (e.g., G.K. Gokhale): Believed in gradual reform, constitutional methods (petitioning, debating), and loyalty to the Crown. They wanted more Indian participation, not full independence (Swaraj).
  • Extremists (e.g., B.G. Tilak): Advocated for more direct action, popular agitation, and demanded immediate Swaraj (self-rule). They saw British rule as inherently damaging.
Constitutional Reforms: The British Strategy

Faced with growing unrest (especially after the controversial 1905 Partition of Bengal), the British offered limited concessions to appease the Moderates.

1. The Morley-Minto Reforms (1909):

  • Increased Indian representation on the central and provincial legislative councils.
  • Crucially, they introduced Separate Electorates for Muslims. This meant only Muslims could vote for Muslim representatives. This deepened the religious divide and is a key turning point in the history of Partition.

2. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919):

  • Introduced Dyarchy (dual government) in the provinces.
  • Certain ‘less important’ areas (like health, education) were transferred to Indian ministers, while ‘vital’ areas (like finance, policing) remained with British governors.

Memory Aid (Reforms): Think of M&M (Morley-Minto, 1909) and M&C (Montagu-Chelmsford, 1919). The 1909 M&M introduced separate electorates, which was the first major step toward dividing Indian politics.

Key Takeaway (Section 2): Early nationalism divided into moderate and extremist camps, while British reforms (especially the 1909 Act) intentionally introduced communal division into the political system.

Section 3: The Gandhian Era and Mass Movements (1919–1939)

The aftermath of World War I—where Indians expected greater freedoms after supporting Britain—saw the rise of the revolutionary leader, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.

Gandhi’s Philosophy: Satyagraha

Gandhi returned to India in 1915 after successfully using passive resistance in South Africa. His philosophy was Satyagraha (often translated as 'truth force' or active non-violent resistance). This was revolutionary because it involved the masses, not just the educated elite.

The Turning Point: The Amritsar Massacre (1919)

In response to war-time repressive laws (the Rowlatt Acts), protests erupted in Punjab. In April 1919, General Dyer ordered troops to fire upon a peaceful, unarmed crowd trapped in the enclosed Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. Hundreds were killed.

Impact: This single event shattered any remaining faith Moderates had in British justice and convinced many nationalists that non-cooperation was the only path.

The Major Movements: Mobilizing the Nation

Gandhi launched two massive national campaigns:

1. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922):

  • Indians refused to participate in government institutions (boycotting British goods, courts, schools, and elections).
  • Aimed to make the Raj impossible to run.
  • It was called off abruptly after the Chauri Chaura Incident, where protesters killed police officers, violating Gandhi’s core principle of non-violence.

2. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934):

  • The most iconic part was the Salt March (Dandi March). Gandhi walked 240 miles to the sea to illegally produce salt, thus breaking the British monopoly on the essential commodity.
  • This brilliantly simple act resonated with the poorest segments of society and attracted massive international attention.
Constitutional Step: The Government of India Act (1935)

This was the last major reform before independence. It proposed a federation of British provinces and Princely States and granted full provincial autonomy (local self-rule). Although the federation part never materialized, the provincial autonomy led to Congress winning elections and forming governments in most provinces in 1937, proving their political power.

Key Takeaway (Section 3): Gandhi transformed the freedom struggle from an elite debate into a massive movement through non-violent resistance (Satyagraha), exemplified by the powerful Salt March.

Section 4: The Push for Partition (1939–1947)

As independence became inevitable, the question shifted from when Britain would leave to what form the new India would take.

The Rise of Jinnah and the Muslim League (ML)

While the Muslim League (founded 1906) initially advocated for Muslim rights within a united India, the political landscape changed dramatically in the late 1930s.

  • Mohammad Ali Jinnah: Initially a Congress member, he became the powerful leader of the ML. By 1940, he rejected the idea of a united India.
  • The Two-Nation Theory (1940): Jinnah argued that Hindus and Muslims were not merely religious groups but two distinct, separate nations who could not coexist peacefully in one state. This led to the demand for a separate Muslim state: Pakistan.
The Impact of World War II (1939–1945)

WWII fatally weakened Britain, making independence certain. However, the war caused conflict in India:

  • Congress: Launched the Quit India Movement (1942), demanding immediate British withdrawal. Thousands of Congress leaders were jailed.
  • Muslim League: Supported the British war effort, using the time Congress leaders were jailed to expand its political base and solidify support for Pakistan.
Final Negotiations and Failure

Post-war, Britain was bankrupt and determined to leave quickly.

1. The Cripps Mission (1942) & Cabinet Mission (1946): Both offered forms of self-rule and unity but failed because Congress insisted on a strong, centralized India, while the ML insisted on grouping Muslim-majority provinces into an autonomous bloc, a prerequisite for Pakistan.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't confuse the failure of the Cabinet Mission (1946) with the decision to Partition. The Mission failed to convince the parties to agree to a united plan, which paved the way for Partition.

The Descent into Violence

When the Cabinet Mission failed, Jinnah declared Direct Action Day (August 1946) to demonstrate the strength of the demand for Pakistan. This led to horrific communal rioting in Calcutta and quickly spread across North India, convincing the British that a civil war was imminent if they stayed.

The British Conclusion: Lord Mountbatten (the final Viceroy) arrived in 1947 and concluded that Partition was the only quick solution to prevent widespread civil war.

Quick Review: Road to Partition | Date | Event | Significance | |---|---|---| | 1909 | Morley-Minto Reforms | Introduced separate electorates. | | 1937 | Provincial Elections | Congress dominance worries the ML. | | 1940 | Lahore Resolution (ML) | Formal demand for Pakistan (Two-Nation Theory). | | 1942 | Quit India Movement (INC) | Congress leadership jailed; ML strengthens position. | | 1946 | Direct Action Day | Massive communal violence begins. |

Section 5: Independence and the Legacy of Partition (1947)

The transition was swift and devastating.

The Indian Independence Act (1947)

This Act formalized the division of British India into two independent states:

1. The Dominion of India (Hindu-majority)
2. The Dominion of Pakistan (Muslim-majority) (comprising West and East Pakistan, separated by 1,000 miles of India).

The Act came into effect on 14th August (Pakistan) and 15th August (India), 1947.

The Radcliffe Line

The border between the two new nations was drawn hastily by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who had never visited India before. The line (the Radcliffe Line) often cut across villages, railway lines, and even houses, resulting in chaos.

The Great Migration

The announcement of the borders triggered the largest mass migration in human history. Approximately 15 million people were displaced—Hindus and Sikhs fleeing Pakistan; Muslims fleeing India—to reach the safety of the ‘correct’ dominion.

The cost: Estimates suggest between 500,000 and 2 million people died in the accompanying violence, starvation, and disease. This horrific trauma permanently scarred the relationship between the two newly independent states.

Key Takeaway (Section 5): Independence in 1947 was achieved swiftly but at the immense human cost of Partition, demonstrating the terrible consequences of failed political negotiations and hastily drawn borders.


Final Review: Key Concepts for Source Evaluation

To analyze sources effectively in this chapter, remember to look for evidence of the following:

  • Continuity and Change: How did the administration change from the EIC to the Raj? (Source B may show the EIC structure, Source C the Raj structure).
  • Communalism: How did the British policy of separate electorates (1909) influence the political demands of the Muslim League?
  • Mass Mobilization: Sources may show the scale of Gandhi’s support versus the support for the Muslim League—look for references to peasants, women, or specific religious groups.
  • Political Weakness: Sources from 1945–1947 often reveal Britain's exhaustion and desperate need to withdraw, which accelerated the timeline for Partition.

You’ve covered a huge amount of history. Keep reviewing these key dates and terms, and you'll be well-prepared!