Sociology (9292) | Educational attainment

Studying Educational Attainment: Why Grades Matter

Welcome to the chapter on Educational Attainment! Don't worry if this topic seems complex—it’s actually one of the most interesting parts of Sociology because it explains why people from different backgrounds often end up with very different educational results.

What we will learn: We will investigate the key factors—like your background, your family's income, your gender, and your ethnicity—that influence how successful you are in the education system. Understanding this helps us understand why society is structured the way it is!

What is Educational Attainment?

Simply put, Educational Attainment refers to the qualifications, grades, and levels of education an individual or a group achieves. When sociologists talk about "attainment gaps," they are comparing the GCSE results (or equivalent) between different social groups.

• High Attainment: Achieving many good qualifications (e.g., high GCSE grades).
• Low Attainment: Achieving few or no qualifications.

Sociologists divide the causes of these gaps into two main areas:

1. External Factors: These are things happening outside the school (at home, in the family, or in wider society).
2. Internal Factors: These are things happening inside the school (teacher interactions, school rules, setting/streaming).

I. External Factors: The Influence of Home and Background

The most powerful external factor affecting attainment is often Social Class. Sociologists find that generally, students from middle-class backgrounds achieve higher results than those from working-class backgrounds. Why?

A. Material Deprivation (The Money Factor)

Material Deprivation means lacking the basic resources, money, or physical necessities needed to succeed in school. If you are struggling financially, your education often suffers.

Examples of Material Deprivation:

• Poor Diet and Health: Children from low-income families might suffer from poor nutrition, leading to sickness or difficulty concentrating in class.
• Lack of Resources: No money for textbooks, educational trips, private tutoring, or even basic items like reliable computers or a quiet study space.
• Housing Issues: Overcrowding, lack of central heating, or frequent house moves make studying difficult and disrupts educational stability.
• The Cost of Education: Even in state schools, costs stack up (uniforms, transport, equipment). Working-class students may have to take on part-time jobs, distracting them from schoolwork.

Analogy: Imagine two athletes. One has the best trainers, equipment, and a personal coach (middle class). The other has worn-out gear and must work a job every evening (working class). Who is more likely to win the race?

B. Cultural Deprivation (The Culture Factor)

Cultural Deprivation suggests that working-class students sometimes lack the norms, values, and skills necessary for educational success because their home culture differs from the culture of the school system (which is often dominated by middle-class values).

1. Speech Codes (Bernstein)

Sociologist Basil Bernstein suggested that there are two main types of language used in society:

• Restricted Code: Simple, context-bound language used mainly by working-class families. Sentences are short, and meaning is often shared implicitly ("You know what I mean"). This is great for social bonding but less useful for academic work.
• Elaborate Code: Complex, detailed, explicit language used mainly by middle-class families and, crucially, by teachers and exam papers. This code is necessary for explaining complex ideas.

If a student only uses the restricted code at home, they may feel confused or disadvantaged when teachers and textbooks use the elaborate code—it feels like a foreign language!

2. Parents’ Attitudes and Expectations

Working-Class Parents: May see education as less important or feel less comfortable interacting with the school, especially if they had negative experiences themselves. They may value immediate employment over lengthy education.

Middle-Class Parents: Often have higher expectations, actively support homework, attend all school events, and have better knowledge of how the school system works (they possess cultural capital—the knowledge and skills valued by education).

II. Internal Factors: The School Environment

Internal factors are specific processes or interactions that happen within the school walls that can influence attainment, often reinforcing existing external inequalities.

A. Labelling Theory

Labelling is the process of teachers attaching a meaning or definition (a label) to a student, often based not on academic ability, but on social class, appearance, or behavior.

• Positive Labels: "Bright," "Cooperative," "High potential" (often given to middle-class students).
• Negative Labels: "Troublemaker," "Slow learner," "Lazy" (often given to working-class students or certain ethnic minorities).

Did you know? Sociologists found that teachers often labeled students as 'ideal pupils' based on how closely they matched middle-class expectations (neat, polite, prepared).

B. The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (SFP)

The self-fulfilling prophecy happens when a label becomes reality. It works like this:

1. Teacher labels Student X as a "failure."
2. The teacher subtly treats Student X differently (lower expectations, less encouragement, less challenging work).
3. Student X internalizes the label ("I must be stupid"), loses motivation, and stops trying hard.
4. The student fails. The initial prediction (the label) has come true.

The SFP can destroy confidence and push a student towards underachievement, regardless of their original ability.

C. Setting, Streaming, and Subcultures

Schools often group students into classes based on perceived ability (streaming or setting).

• Top Sets: Generally receive the best resources, the most encouragement, and are pushed for high grades. They develop a pro-school attitude.
• Bottom Sets: Often contain disproportionately high numbers of working-class or minority students. They may receive less attention, feel inferior, and be taught at a slower pace.

This grouping often leads to the formation of different student subcultures:

• Pro-School Subculture: Students committed to school values, achieving high status through academic success (often top sets).
• Anti-School Subculture: Students who feel alienated, reject school values, and achieve status among peers by breaking rules or disrupting lessons (often bottom sets). Joining this subculture severely limits attainment.

III. Differential Attainment by Group

Sociology investigates how attainment differs across three major social groups: Social Class (already covered), Gender, and Ethnicity.

A. Gender Differences in Attainment

Globally, and especially in the UK, girls have generally outperformed boys across most subjects and levels for the past 30 years, especially since the introduction of the GCSE system.

Why Do Girls Outperform Boys? (External Factors)

• Feminism and Changing Ambitions: Since the 1970s, feminism has challenged traditional female stereotypes. Girls now have higher ambitions, seeing education as a pathway to professional careers, not just marriage and motherhood.
• Changes in the Job Market: The decline of traditional manual labour industries (like mining or manufacturing) meant fewer well-paid jobs for working-class men who lacked qualifications. Meanwhile, the growth of the service sector created more opportunities requiring qualifications, benefiting women.
• Family Role Models: Seeing professional women in the media and in their own families provides encouragement.

Why Do Girls Outperform Boys? (Internal Factors)

• Classroom Behaviour: Teachers often note that girls tend to be more organized, meet deadlines, and mature faster than boys. Their behaviour often matches the 'ideal pupil' label.
• Assessment Methods: Coursework and modular exams benefit girls, who are often better at sustained effort, organisation, and presentation. Boys often prefer high-stakes, one-off final exams.
• Feminisation of Education: Many primary and secondary teachers are women, potentially giving girls more positive role models and leading to a teaching style that better suits girls.

Why Do Boys Underachieve?

• Laddish Culture: Some working-class boys adopt an anti-school masculine identity. They believe that being seen to work hard is "uncool" or "unmanly" (especially if they are in bottom sets). This rejection of effort leads to self-imposed underachievement.
• Crisis of Masculinity: Boys may feel a lack of clear purpose due to the decline of traditional male jobs, leading to a motivational crisis in school.

B. Ethnic Differences in Attainment

Attainment varies significantly by ethnicity. Some minority groups (like Chinese and Indian students) generally achieve significantly above the national average, while others (like Black Caribbean, Pakistani, and Gypsy/Roma students) often face lower attainment rates.

Factors for High Attainment in Specific Ethnic Groups:

• Cultural Factors: High value placed on education within the family (e.g., strong parental encouragement and high expectations among many Chinese and Indian families).
• Material Factors: Some high-attaining groups are less likely to experience poverty than others.

Factors for Low Attainment in Specific Ethnic Groups:

Low attainment among groups like some Black Caribbean or Pakistani students is often a result of both material and institutional factors:

• Material Deprivation: Ethnic minority groups are often disproportionately affected by poverty, poor housing, and unemployment.
• Racism in Society: Wider societal racism can lead to feelings of alienation and low motivation, as some students believe qualifications won't overcome discrimination in the job market.
• Internal Factors: Institutional Racism: This refers to prejudice built into the structure of the education system itself. Examples include:
  • Teacher stereotypes and labelling against certain ethnic groups, leading to the self-fulfilling prophecy.
  • A curriculum that ignores or devalues minority cultures (ethnocentric curriculum).
  • Students from certain ethnic groups being unfairly placed into lower sets or excluded more often.
• Pupil Responses: Some students may form subcultures or adapt 'resistance' strategies to counter teacher racism or negative labelling, which can unfortunately lead to underachievement.