📚 Study Notes: The Origins of the First World War, c1890–1915

Welcome! This chapter explains how Europe went from a period of relative peace to the worst war the world had ever seen. Understanding these origins is like solving a historical detective mystery—we look at the long-term pressures that built up and the spark that finally set everything ablaze.

Don't worry if some of the names are complicated. Focus on the relationships between the countries, not just memorizing every date!

1. The Long-Term Causes: The MAIN Ingredients for War

Historians often use the simple mnemonic MAIN to remember the four primary long-term causes that created extreme tension in Europe by 1914. Think of them as four giant weights pulling Europe towards conflict.

Militarism (The Arms Race)

Militarism is the belief that a country should have a strong military and be prepared to use it aggressively. From 1890 onwards, Europe saw a massive build-up of armies and navies—an Arms Race.

  • What Happened? Countries spent huge amounts of money competing to have the biggest armies and the most powerful weapons.
  • The Naval Race: This was especially intense between Britain and Germany. Britain relied on its navy to protect its vast empire. When Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany decided he wanted a navy to rival Britain's, it created deep hostility.
  • Key Term: The Dreadnought. This revolutionary battleship, first launched by Britain in 1906, made all other battleships instantly obsolete. Germany quickly started building its own fleet of Dreadnoughts, escalating the competition fiercely.

💡 Analogy: Imagine two teenagers (Britain and Germany). One gets a powerful, fast car (the Dreadnought). The other immediately feels they must get an even faster car just to keep up. This competition increases danger for everyone.

A Alliances (The Rival Gangs)

By the early 1900s, Europe was divided into two rigid, massive alliances. These agreements meant that if one country went to war, its allies were legally bound to join in. This turned small conflicts into huge ones.

The system was designed to create security, but ironically, it made war inevitable.

  • The Triple Alliance (Central Powers): Formed in 1882. Consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (though Italy later left the alliance).
  • The Triple Entente (Allied Powers): Formed gradually between 1894 and 1907. Consisted of France, Russia, and Great Britain.

Did you know? The word 'Entente' means 'understanding' or 'agreement' in French. It was slightly less binding than the Triple Alliance, but still committed the powers to defend each other.

I Imperialism (The Scramble for Colonies)

Imperialism is when powerful countries compete to control territories overseas (colonies) for resources, markets, and prestige. This competition caused major friction, especially between Britain, France, and Germany.

  • The Focus: Much of the competition centered on Africa—known as the Scramble for Africa.
  • Prestige: Colonies were seen as a sign of power. Germany, being a newer united nation, felt it deserved a "place in the sun" (more colonies) to rival older empires like Britain and France.
  • Key Conflict: The competition in colonies directly fueled military spending, as empires needed navies and armies to protect their global holdings.
N Nationalism (Aggressive Patriotism)

Nationalism is intense pride in one's country. While patriotism is healthy, aggressive nationalism involves believing your country is superior and willing to fight to prove it.

  • France vs. Germany: France desperately wanted revenge on Germany for losing the territory of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871.
  • Pan-Slavism: In Eastern Europe, Russia encouraged Pan-Slavism—the idea that all Slavic people (like Serbs, Bulgarians, and Poles) should be united under Russian protection. This directly challenged the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which ruled over millions of Slavs.
  • Serbia's Ambition: Serbia, a small Slavic state, wanted to create a "Greater Serbia," uniting all Slavs in the Balkans. This goal was a huge threat to Austria-Hungary.

Quick Review: MAIN

Militarism (Arms Race)
Alliances (Triple Entente vs. Triple Alliance)
Imperialism (Competition for colonies)
Nationalism (Aggressive pride and ethnic tensions)

2. International Crises: The Powder Keg Begins to Smoke

Between 1905 and 1913, several international crises took place. These were like dress rehearsals for the main event—they showed how rigid the alliance system was and brought Europe repeatedly close to war.

The Moroccan Crises (1905 and 1911)

Morocco was controlled by France. Germany saw this as an opportunity to test the strength of the new Franco-British relationship (the Entente Cordiale).

  • First Moroccan Crisis (1905): Kaiser Wilhelm II sailed to Tangier, Morocco, and declared his support for Moroccan independence, directly challenging France.
  • Result: An international conference was held. Germany was isolated; only Austria-Hungary supported it. The crisis failed to break the Entente—in fact, it strengthened the bond between Britain and France.
  • Second Moroccan Crisis (1911): Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir to protest French actions.
  • Result: Britain, fearing German naval expansion to the Atlantic, strongly supported France. Germany was forced to back down in exchange for a tiny piece of land in Central Africa. Germany was humiliated and felt unfairly treated.

Key Takeaway: Germany's aggressive actions in Morocco did not achieve their goals; instead, they pushed Britain and France even closer together, hardening the alliance system.

The Balkan Crises (The Powder Keg of Europe)

The Balkans (Southeastern Europe) was a hotbed of nationalist tension. Austria-Hungary and Russia both wanted influence there, and small independent states like Serbia had large nationalist goals.

  • Why "Powder Keg"? The Ottoman Empire was collapsing, leaving a vacuum of power. Every small ethnic group wanted independence, and every major power wanted control of the strategically important area.
  • The Bosnian Crisis (1908): Austria-Hungary illegally annexed (took control of) Bosnia and Herzegovina, two provinces with a large Slavic population that Serbia wanted. Russia tried to defend Serbia, but Russia was too weak to fight Austria-Hungary and Germany, and was forced to back down.
  • The Balkan Wars (1912–1913): Two quick wars reshuffled the borders. Crucially, Serbia doubled its size and became very confident and aggressive, while Austria-Hungary grew determined to crush Serbian nationalism once and for all.

Common Mistake to Avoid: The Balkans were the location of the spark, but the underlying tensions (MAIN) were the fuel. Don't confuse the crises with the fundamental long-term causes.

3. The Final Spark: The July Crisis of 1914

The assassination of an Archduke in Sarajevo was the trigger that instantly set off the chain reaction caused by the alliance system.

A. The Assassination at Sarajevo (June 28, 1914)
  • Who: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
  • Where: Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia (annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908).
  • The Killer: Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist and member of the terrorist group The Black Hand, which aimed to unite Slavs with Serbia.
  • Why it Matters: Austria-Hungary saw the assassination not just as murder, but as a direct challenge by Serbia to the existence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
B. The Chain Reaction Begins (The Blank Cheque)

Austria-Hungary sought German support before taking action against Serbia.

  • The Blank Cheque: On July 5th, Germany gave Austria-Hungary a "Blank Cheque"—a promise of unconditional support, regardless of what action Austria-Hungary chose to take. This crucial step encouraged Austria to risk war, knowing they had the backing of the mighty German army.
  • The Ultimatum: Backed by Germany, Austria-Hungary delivered a harsh, deliberately unacceptable ultimatum (a final demand) to Serbia on July 23rd. Serbia accepted almost all terms but refused one point: allowing Austrian police to enter Serbia to investigate the assassination.

💡 Analogy: The ultimatum was like asking someone to apologize, pay you $1,000, AND hand over their house keys forever. You know they can’t agree, which gives you the perfect excuse to attack.

C. Declarations of War and Mobilization

The rejection of the final term of the ultimatum led to a cascade of military mobilization orders:

Step-by-Step Escalation:

  1. July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. (War starts, theoretically small.)
  2. July 30: Russia, following its policy of Pan-Slavism and its alliance with Serbia, begins full mobilization (preparing its entire army for war).
  3. July 31: Germany warns Russia to stop mobilizing. When Russia refuses, Germany mobilizes.
  4. August 1: Germany declares war on Russia.
  5. August 3: Germany declares war on France (Russia’s ally).
The Schlieffen Plan and Britain’s Entry

Germany had a strict war plan called the Schlieffen Plan. This plan assumed a two-front war (Russia in the East, France in the West) and required defeating France quickly before the slow-mobilizing Russian army was ready.

  • The Schlieffen Plan required German troops to invade France by passing through neutral Belgium.
  • Britain had guaranteed Belgium's neutrality in 1839. When Germany invaded Belgium on August 4th, Britain felt bound by treaty obligation and saw the invasion of a small country as a moral outrage.
  • August 4: Great Britain declares war on Germany. The First World War had begun.

Key Takeaway: The assassination was the spark, but it was the rigid alliance system (A) and Germany’s unwavering support for Austria (Blank Cheque), combined with military planning (M), that turned a regional dispute into a global war.

4. Final Review: Key Terms to Know

Ensure you can define and explain the role of these terms in starting the war:

  • MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism)
  • Triple Entente
  • Triple Alliance
  • Dreadnought
  • Pan-Slavism
  • The Balkan Crises (The Powder Keg)
  • Gavrilo Princip
  • Blank Cheque
  • Schlieffen Plan

You’ve covered the complex factors that led to one of history’s greatest conflicts! Keep practicing the cause-and-effect links—that’s the key to high marks!