History (9245) | Hitler’s foreign policy and the origins of the Second World War, 1933-41

Welcome, Future Historians!

Welcome to the study notes for one of the most important and complex periods in 20th-century history: Hitler’s foreign policy and how it led directly to the Second World War.

Don't worry if this seems like a lot of information! We will break down Hitler's actions step-by-step, seeing how he challenged the world piece by piece until a major conflict became unavoidable. This knowledge is essential for understanding why the world went to war in 1939.

Section 1: The Big Picture – Hitler’s Core Aims

When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, he didn't hide his intentions. His foreign policy was based on three central, aggressive goals. Think of these as the three items on his 'To-Do' list.

1. Overturn the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles (1919) was deeply hated by Germans, who felt it was an unfair punishment after World War I. Hitler promised to tear it up.

• What it meant: Breaking the limits placed on Germany’s army, regaining lost territory, and stopping reparation payments.
• Analogy: Versailles was like a contract forcing Germany to be small and weak. Hitler’s first goal was to rip up the contract and get stronger.

2. Create a Greater Germany (Großdeutschland)

Hitler believed all German-speaking people should live together in one vast empire (Reich).

• What it meant: Bringing Austria, Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland), and parts of Poland into Germany. This concept is known as Großdeutschland.

3. Gain Living Space (Lebensraum)

This was Hitler's most dangerous aim. Lebensraum literally means 'Living Space.'

• Hitler believed the German race needed more land, food, and resources, which he intended to take by force from Eastern Europe, especially the Soviet Union.
• Key Point: Achieving Lebensraum meant invasion and the removal of Slavic people whom the Nazis considered 'inferior.' This goal guaranteed a major war.

Section 2: Testing the Waters – Dismantling Versailles (1933-1936)

Hitler didn't launch straight into war. He took calculated risks, waiting to see if Britain and France would stop him. They didn't.

1933: Withdrawal from the League of Nations

The League of Nations (LoN) was the international organization designed to keep peace.

• Hitler left the LoN after they refused to accept Germany’s demand for 'equal treatment' (meaning, the right to rearm just like everyone else).
• Impact: This showed Hitler was willing to ignore international opinion and only follow rules that suited him.

1935: Rearmament and the Saar Plebiscite

• Rearmament: Hitler publicly announced he was rebuilding the German army (Luftwaffe, Navy, Army), completely violating the Treaty of Versailles. The size of the army increased dramatically.
• Saar Plebiscite: The Saar region (rich in coal) was taken from Germany after WWI. In 1935, a vote (plebiscite) was held, and 90% of the population voted to return to German rule. This was a legal success for Hitler and boosted his popularity.

1936: Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

The Rhineland was a German area bordering France and Belgium. Versailles said Germany had to keep it demilitarised (no soldiers or weapons allowed there).

Step-by-Step Action:

1. In March 1936, Hitler ordered German troops back into the Rhineland. This was a massive gamble.
2. If France had reacted militarily, Hitler’s small force had orders to retreat immediately.
3. France was preoccupied and Britain felt Germany was just moving troops into 'their own backyard.' They did nothing.

Key Takeaway: The successful remilitarization of the Rhineland convinced Hitler that Britain and France were weak and would not oppose him forcefully.

Section 3: Forging Alliances and Expansion (1936-1938)

1936-39: Spanish Civil War

While not directly about territory, Hitler (and Mussolini) used the Spanish Civil War to test new weapons, improve military tactics (like the Blitzkrieg concepts), and strengthen their alliance against Communism.

The Anti-Comintern Pact (1936-37)

Germany, Japan, and later Italy (1937) signed this pact. 'Comintern' was the name for the Communist organization centered in the Soviet Union.

• What it meant: These countries were forming an alliance (later called the Axis Powers) to oppose the spread of Communism, signalling their aggressive intent.

1938: Anschluss with Austria

Hitler’s next major goal was Anschluss (Union) – joining Germany and Austria, violating the Versailles Treaty again.

The Process:

1. Hitler put massive pressure on the Austrian Chancellor to accept the union.
2. When the Chancellor called a vote (plebiscite) on the matter, Hitler simply marched German troops into Austria in March 1938, claiming he was invited to restore order.
3. The vast majority of Austrians supported the union (a subsequent plebiscite showed high support).

Did you know? Many Austrians greeted the German soldiers with flowers, proving Hitler’s popularity amongst some German-speakers was real. This strengthened his goal of Großdeutschland.

Section 4: The Failure of Appeasement (1938-1939)

After the successful Anschluss, Hitler looked to Czechoslovakia. He demanded the German-speaking region called the Sudetenland. This crisis is the central example of Appeasement.

What is Appeasement?

Appeasement was the foreign policy followed mainly by Britain (led by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain) and France. It meant giving Hitler what he wanted (or parts of it) in the hope that he would be satisfied and stop demanding more, thus avoiding war.

Why did Britain and France choose Appeasement?

• They wanted to avoid another massive war (WWI was still fresh in memory).
• They believed Hitler's demands (like taking back the Rhineland) were reasonable since they concerned German land.
• They were not financially ready for war (The Great Depression had weakened their economies).
• Some British leaders saw Germany as a useful buffer against Communist Russia.

The Munich Agreement (September 1938)

This was the climax of the Appeasement policy.

Leaders from Britain (Chamberlain), France, Germany (Hitler), and Italy (Mussolini) met in Munich.

• Czechoslovakia was not invited, even though it was their land being discussed!
• The agreement allowed Hitler to take the Sudetenland immediately.
• In return, Hitler promised this would be his 'last territorial demand in Europe.'

The Result: Chamberlain returned to Britain declaring he had achieved "peace for our time." He was wrong.

March 1939: The End of Appeasement

Hitler broke his Munich promise just six months later.

• In March 1939, German troops marched into the rest of Czechoslovakia, occupying Prague.
• Crucial Point: Unlike the Rhineland or the Sudetenland, the rest of Czechoslovakia contained no significant German population. This proved Hitler was not just interested in uniting Germans, but in outright conquest (Lebensraum).
• Britain and France realized Hitler could not be trusted. Appeasement had failed. Britain promised to defend Poland if Hitler attacked it next.

Section 5: The Road to War and Early Conflict (1939-1941)

May 1939: The Pact of Steel

Formal military alliance between Germany and Italy (Mussolini). They promised to support each other in case of war.

August 1939: The Nazi-Soviet Pact

This was perhaps the biggest shock of the 1930s. Nazi Germany and the Communist Soviet Union (led by Stalin) were sworn ideological enemies. Yet, they signed a Non-Aggression Pact.

• Public Terms: Germany and the USSR promised not to attack each other.
• Secret Terms: They agreed to invade and divide Poland between them.
• Why? Hitler avoided fighting a war on two fronts (east and west) immediately. Stalin bought time to rearm and hoped Hitler would fight Britain and France first.

September 1939: The Invasion of Poland

On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland using a new tactic called Blitzkrieg (Lightning War).

• Blitzkrieg relied on speed, using tanks, armored vehicles, and air support (Luftwaffe) to rapidly break through enemy lines.
• Because Britain and France had guaranteed Poland’s security, they issued an ultimatum to Hitler.

3 September 1939: Declaration of War

When Hitler ignored the ultimatum, Britain and France declared war on Germany. The Second World War had begun.

The Early War Years (1939-1941)

Hitler’s successes continued rapidly, powered by Blitzkrieg:

• 1940: Germany quickly conquered Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and spectacularly defeated France in just six weeks.
• 1940: The Battle of Britain: Germany launched a massive air campaign aimed at destroying the RAF (Royal Air Force) before a land invasion (Operation Sea Lion). Britain, led by Winston Churchill, resisted and defeated the Luftwaffe, marking Hitler’s first major setback.
• June 1941: Operation Barbarossa: Breaking the Nazi-Soviet Pact, Hitler launched the invasion of the Soviet Union. This opened the Eastern Front, bringing the USSR into the Allied side and significantly expanding the conflict towards total global war.

Key Takeaway: Hitler's foreign policy was a continuous series of rule-breaking and aggression, starting with small steps (Rearmament) and escalating until only major powers standing against him could stop the goal of Lebensraum.