🧠 Study Notes: Scientific Approaches in Psychology 🧠
Hello future psychologists! This chapter, "Scientific Approaches," is one of the most important in your course. Why? Because it defines the *rules* of psychology and the different *lenses* we use to explain human behavior. Think of approaches as different detective teams, each with their own methods and priorities, trying to solve the mystery of why we do what we do.
Don't worry if some concepts feel abstract; we'll break them down using simple examples and analogies. Let's get started!
The Foundation: Psychology as a Science
Before we look at the different approaches, we must understand what makes psychology a science. The scientific approach provides the strict framework for testing ideas reliably.
Key Concepts of the Scientific Method
- Objectivity:
This means being unbiased. Psychologists must ensure that personal feelings, beliefs, or expectations do not influence the research process or the results. Results should be based on facts, not opinions. - The Empirical Method:
This simply means knowledge is gained through direct, sensory experience—in other words, through observation and measurement. If you can’t observe it or measure it (like thought processes, which are inferred), it’s not empirical data. - Replicability:
A study is replicable if other researchers can repeat the exact study using the same methods and materials, and achieve the same or very similar results. This increases confidence in the original findings. - Falsifiability:
A key idea proposed by philosopher Karl Popper. A theory is only scientific if it is possible to prove it wrong. If a theory explains everything, it actually predicts nothing!
Theory Construction and Hypothesis Testing
Science follows a cycle:
- Observation: You notice something interesting (e.g., children exposed to violent TV are more aggressive).
- Theory Construction: You develop a general explanation for this (e.g., observing violence causes social learning).
- Hypothesis Testing: You derive a specific, testable prediction (a hypothesis) from the theory (e.g., "Children who watch 30 minutes of violent cartoons will show more hitting behaviour than those who watch non-violent cartoons.").
- Testing: You run an experiment.
- Evaluation: Based on the results, you either support, reject, or modify your original theory.
Quick Review: The scientific approach insists on objectivity and testing ideas that can potentially be proven false (falsifiability).
3.4.1 Scientific Approaches in Psychology
These four approaches offer very different explanations for behavior, ranging from purely learned associations to complex internal thought processes and genetics.
1. The Learning Approach (Behaviourism)
The learning approach focuses on observable behavior and argues that most behavior is learned from the environment.
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov's Research)
This is learning by association. A neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally produces an unconditioned response (UCR). Eventually, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and produces the conditioned response (CR).
Example: Pavlov’s Dogs
- Before learning: Food (UCS) -> Salivation (UCR). Bell (NS) -> No Salivation.
- During learning: Bell (NS) is paired with Food (UCS).
- After learning: Bell (CS) -> Salivation (CR).
Operant Conditioning (Skinner's Research)
This involves learning through consequences (rewards and punishments). Behaviour is voluntarily repeated if followed by a pleasant consequence, or avoided if followed by an unpleasant one.
- Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
- Positive Reinforcement: Receiving something pleasant (e.g., getting a sticker for good work).
- Negative Reinforcement: Escaping something unpleasant (e.g., taking an aspirin to remove a headache).
- Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
The Social Learning Theory (SLT) and Bandura
SLT suggests we learn indirectly, not just through direct reinforcement, by observing others (modelling). This bridges the gap between traditional behaviourism and the cognitive approach.
- Modelling: Observing and imitating a role model.
- Identification: The observer connects with the role model (often someone perceived as having high status or similarity).
- Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning through observing the consequences (reward or punishment) of another person's actions. You see your friend get praised for answering a question, so you are more likely to answer too.
Did you know? Bandura’s famous Bobo doll study demonstrated that children would imitate aggressive acts they observed an adult model perform, especially if the adult was rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).
The Role of Mediational Processes
Bandura argued that four internal cognitive processes occur between observing the behaviour and imitating it. These are the mental 'stop and think' steps:
Mnemonic: ARRM
- Attention: Paying attention to the model’s behaviour.
- Retention: Remembering the behaviour (storing the information in memory).
- Motor Reproduction: Being physically capable of reproducing the behaviour.
- Motivation: The desire or will to perform the behaviour (often based on whether the behavior was reinforced).
Key Takeaway (Learning Approach): Behaviourists focus only on stimulus-response links, while SLT adds the crucial element of observation and mediational processes.
2. The Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach focuses on the mind—the 'black box' that behaviourists ignored. It studies internal mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking, and problem-solving.
Core Principles
- Internal Mental Processes: These processes mediate (come between) the stimulus and the response. Unlike behaviour, they cannot be observed directly, so they are inferred based on behaviour.
- The Role of Schema:
A schema is a mental framework or blueprint developed from experience. Schemas help us process information quickly, but they can also lead to errors or biases (like stereotyping), as they fill in the blanks using expectations.Analogy: A schema is like a mental filing cabinet or folder for a concept (e.g., your "dog" schema includes four legs, barking, fur). When you see a dog, you don't process every detail from scratch.
The Use of Theoretical and Computer Models
Cognitive psychologists use models to explain and simplify complex mental structures:
- Theoretical Models: Diagrams and flowcharts (like the Multi-Store Model of Memory) used to represent the different stages of information processing.
- Computer Models: Comparing the human mind to a computer. Information is input (senses), processed (thinking, decision-making), and then produces an output (behaviour, language). This model highlights the importance of coding and storage.
The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience
This is the scientific study of the biological structures underlying cognitive processes. Thanks to advancements in brain scanning technology (like fMRI and PET scans), we can now accurately locate where different mental processes (like memory or language) take place in the brain.
Key Takeaway (Cognitive Approach): This approach sees the person as an active processor of information, using schemas and models to understand how we think and remember.
3. The Biological Approach
This approach explains behavior by looking at physical, biological causes. If you want to understand personality, look at the brain and body first!
Influence of Genes and Genetic Basis of Behaviour
- Genes: Inherited units of information from our parents that determine physical and psychological characteristics.
Example: Twin studies show that identical (monozygotic) twins have a higher concordance rate (likelihood of both having a trait) for disorders like Schizophrenia than non-identical (dizygotic) twins, suggesting a genetic basis.
- Genotype vs. Phenotype:
Genotype: The specific genetic make-up (the inherited blueprint or 'recipe').
Phenotype: The observable characteristics resulting from the interaction between the genotype and the environment (the 'baked cake'—what you actually look like/how you behave). Even if two people have the same genotype, environmental factors can lead to different phenotypes.
Biological Structures and Neurochemistry
- Biological Structures: Physical structures of the body that influence behavior, primarily the brain (lobes, centres) and the nervous system.
Example: Damage to the frontal lobe can dramatically change personality.
- Neurochemistry: The influence of chemical messengers (like neurotransmitters and hormones) on mood and behavior.
Example: Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are often linked to depression, suggesting a chemical imbalance influences mental state.
Evolution and Behaviour
The biological approach also argues that human behavior has evolved over millions of years through natural selection. Any behavior that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce (e.g., aggression, mate selection preferences, the "fight or flight" response) is more likely to be passed on genetically.
Example: Humans prefer to form strong social groups because, historically, those who co-operated were more likely to survive threats and thrive.
Quick Review (Biological Approach): Behaviour is determined by our genetics, the structure of our brain, and neurochemistry.
🎉 Chapter Summary Review 🎉
Struggling with the difference between the approaches?
Imagine you see someone shout at a bus driver. Here’s how each approach would explain it:
- Learning Approach (Behaviourism): The person learned this aggressive response because they saw someone else do it and get what they wanted (SLT), or perhaps they were rewarded for shouting in the past (Operant Conditioning).
- Cognitive Approach: The person had a faulty schema about authority figures (bus drivers) that led them to misinterpret the driver’s actions as hostile, resulting in an aggressive output.
- Biological Approach: The person may have a genetic predisposition towards a lack of impulse control, or they might have high levels of adrenaline (a hormone) which led to an overreaction.
Keep these distinctions clear, and you will be able to tackle evaluation questions with confidence!