Geography (9635) | The oceans as a global common

The Oceans as a Global Common: Study Notes (Geography 9635)

Hello Geographers! Welcome to one of the most important (and vast!) topics in global governance: the oceans. This chapter links directly to how the world works, exploring economic pressure, environmental sustainability, and international law. Don't worry if this seems like a massive topic—we’ll break down the 70% of Earth covered by water into manageable parts.

1. Understanding the 'Global Common' Concept

Before diving into the deep blue, we must first understand the core idea: the Global Commons.

What is a Global Common?

A global common is an area or resource that does not belong to any single country and is accessible to all nations. They are managed for the benefit of all humanity.

• Analogy: Think of a communal kitchen or garden. Everyone has the right to use it, but if one person uses too much or leaves a mess, it affects everyone else.

The four recognized Global Commons are:
1. The High Seas (the oceans beyond national jurisdiction)
2. The Atmosphere
3. Outer Space
4. Antarctica

The Oceans as a Global Common (3.2.1.6)

The oceans beyond the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of individual states (typically 200 nautical miles from the coast) are known as the High Seas. These areas, including the vast Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans, are vital for demonstrating the oceans’ role as a global common and their extreme vulnerability to both economic pressure and environmental change.

2. The Contemporary Geography of the Oceans

To understand the threats and governance, you need to know the basic structure of the ocean floor and the water column.

2.1 Ocean Floor Features (Benthic Zones)

These are the physical features found beneath the waves:

• Continental Shelves: Shallow, gently sloping seafloor extending from the edge of the continent.
  (Economically vital: contains most of the world's oil, gas, and fishing grounds.)
• Continental Slopes: The steep drop-off area connecting the shelf to the deep ocean floor.
• Abyssal Plains: Vast, flat areas of the deep ocean floor, usually 3,000 to 6,000 metres deep.
• Mid-Ocean Ridges: Underwater mountain systems formed by plate tectonics (constructive margins), where new crust is created.
  (Example: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge.)
• Trenches: Deep, narrow depressions on the seafloor, often found near destructive plate margins.
  (Example: Mariana Trench, the deepest point on Earth.)
• Volcanic Arcs: Chains of volcanoes formed near trenches.
• Coral Reefs: Biodiverse underwater structures built by coral polyps, usually in shallow, warm tropical waters.
  (Highly vulnerable to climate change and pollution.)

2.2 Water Column Zones (Pelagic Zones)

The ocean water itself is divided into layers based primarily on light penetration:

Simple Trick: Imagine diving down and noting how much light you see!

1. Epipelagic Zone (The Sunlight Zone):
   • Depth: 0m to 200m.
   • Characteristics: Enough sunlight for photosynthesis. This is where most marine life and fisheries exist.
2. Mesopelagic Zone (The Twilight Zone):
   • Depth: 200m to 1,000m.
   • Characteristics: Faint light, but not enough for photosynthesis. Temperatures drop rapidly.
3. Bathypelagic Zone (The Midnight Zone):
   • Depth: 1,000m to 4,000m.
   • Characteristics: Complete darkness, low temperature, immense pressure.
4. Abyssopelagic Zone (The Abyssal Zone):
   • Depth: 4,000m to 6,000m (and beyond).
   • Characteristics: Deepest waters above the seafloor, extremely cold and dark. Creatures here are highly specialised.

Key Takeaway: The oceans are not just a flat expanse of water; they have complex topography and vertical stratification, influencing where resources are found and where vulnerabilities lie.

3. Major Threats to the World's Oceans

The increasing pressure from global economic systems makes the oceans incredibly vulnerable. These threats are interconnected and exacerbate each other.

3.1 Climate Change

Climate change causes two primary dangers to marine ecosystems:

1. Ocean Acidification: The ocean absorbs approximately 25% of anthropogenic (human-caused) CO₂. This CO₂ reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid, lowering the ocean's pH.
   • Impact: Makes it harder for shell-forming organisms (like coral, clams, and plankton) to build and maintain their shells, threatening entire food webs.
2. Sea Temperature Rise: Warmer water leads to coral bleaching (coral expels the algae living in its tissues, turning white) and disrupts the migration and breeding patterns of many fish species.

3.2 Fishing and Whaling

This is a direct economic threat driven by global demand for protein and oil (historically):

• Overfishing: Modern industrial fishing techniques (like massive trawlers) have led to the collapse of many commercial fish stocks.
• Bycatch: Non-target species (dolphins, sea turtles, non-commercial fish) are accidentally caught and discarded, leading to huge wastage and ecosystem damage.
• Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: This is often associated with unequal power relations, where poorer countries cannot patrol their EEZs, and large fleets from richer nations exploit their waters.

3.3 Pollution (Oil and Plastics)

Pollution enters the ocean from land-based sources (runoff, river discharge) and direct marine activities.

• Plastics: Global demand for cheap products means plastics are dumped or carelessly managed. These break down into microplastics, which enter the marine food chain. Large accumulations form features like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
• Oil Spills: Although high-profile, routine discharges from shipping and offshore drilling contribute vast amounts of oil and toxic chemicals annually.

3.4 Shipping, Trade, and Tourism

The ocean is the highway of globalisation, facilitating over 90% of global trade.

• Shipping and Trade: Massive container ships rely on heavy fuel oil, contributing to atmospheric pollution and noise pollution, which disrupts marine mammal communication. The introduction of invasive species via ballast water (water taken up by ships in one port and released in another) is also a major problem.
• Tourism: Cruise ships and coastal resorts increase stress on local marine ecosystems (e.g., sewage discharge, physical damage to reefs, and anchor damage).

Key Takeaway: The oceans are under siege from global economic forces seeking profit and expansion, illustrating the ultimate conflict inherent in managing a 'common' resource.

4. Global Governance of the Oceans

Since no single country owns the high seas, international agreements and organisations are essential for monitoring, inspecting, and enforcing rules.

4.1 The Challenge of Governance

Attempts at governance aim to promote stability and sustainability but often face issues of inequality. Unequal power relations mean that powerful states can sometimes avoid compliance or push policies that favour their own economic interests (e.g., protecting their fishing fleets).

4.2 International Governing Bodies and Conventions

There has been a critical development of norms, laws, and institutions in the post-1945 era attempting to regulate global systems.

1. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
   • Purpose: Often called the "Constitution of the Oceans," this comprehensive international agreement defines the rights and responsibilities of nations regarding the use of the world's oceans.
   • Scope: Defines areas like Territorial Waters (12 nautical miles), Contiguous Zones, and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) (200 nautical miles). Crucially, it governs the High Seas beyond the EEZs.
   • Inspection/Enforcement: Enforcement primarily relies on member states, but UNCLOS provides a framework for dispute resolution.
2. International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
   • Purpose: A specialised UN agency responsible for the safety and security of shipping and preventing marine and atmospheric pollution by ships.
   • Scope: Develops and enforces conventions covering pollution (like the MARPOL Convention, which targets marine pollution from ships, including oil and plastics).
   • Inspection/Enforcement: Sets global standards that national governments must implement and inspect through Port State Control (PSC).

4.3 The Role of NGOs and Non-Governmental Efforts

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) play a crucial role in monitoring threats, publicizing abuses, and enhancing the protection of the oceans, often where international governmental bodies lack enforcement power.

• Marine Stewardship Council (MSC):
  • Purpose: An NGO that runs an eco-labelling and certification program for sustainable seafood.
  • Scope: Certifies fisheries that meet standards for sustainability, traceability, and good management. This harnesses consumer power.
• Other NGOs (e.g., Greenpeace, WWF): These groups monitor illegal fishing, campaign against deep-sea mining, and conduct direct action to protect endangered marine life, putting political and economic pressure on states and corporations.

4.4 Geographical Consequences of Governance

Governance attempts have profound consequences for people who depend on the oceans:

• Positive Impacts: Regulations (like marine protected areas or fishing quotas) can ensure the long-term sustainability of fish stocks, protecting the livelihoods of coastal communities. The IMO’s pollution rules make seas safer and cleaner.
• Negative Impacts (Exacerbated Inequalities): Stricter fishing quotas mandated by international bodies can heavily disadvantage small-scale fishers in developing countries, while large, wealthy industrial fleets may have the resources to adapt or bypass rules. This shows how global governance can sometimes exacerbate injustices.

Key Takeaway: Effective ocean governance requires interaction across local, regional, national, international, and global scales, balancing the economic demands of globalization with the need for environmental protection.