English Language (9670) | Learning language

Welcome to the "Learning Language" Study Guide!

Hello! This chapter is fascinating because it explores one of the most incredible human abilities: how we acquire language—from a baby's first word to a teenager’s sophisticated use of slang. This topic is part of your study of Language Variation (Unit 3), showing that the way we learn language is itself a massive source of variation, both between individuals and across different age groups.

Don't worry if the theories seem tricky at first. We'll break them down using simple analogies so you can confidently apply them when analysing real-world data (speech or written texts).

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1. Early Language Acquisition (ELA): The First Steps

When studying language development in young children (0-5 years), linguists often distinguish between Acquisition and Learning:

• Acquisition (L1): The unconscious, natural process of picking up a first language (L1) through exposure and interaction. This is how babies and toddlers develop speech.
• Learning (L2): The conscious study of a language, typically through formal instruction (like in a classroom).

The Stages of Early Language Acquisition (ELA)

Children move through predictable stages as they master the phonological (sounds), lexical (words), and grammatical (structure) systems of their native language.

1. Pre-Verbal Stage (0–12 months):
   • Cooing (vowel sounds: "ooh," "aah").
   • Babbling (consonant-vowel combinations: "ga-ga," "ma-ma"). This stage helps the child practice articulation.
2. Holophrastic Stage (12–18 months):
   • Children use a single word (a holophrase) to convey a complex meaning, often with strong intonation.
   • Example: "Milk!" could mean "I want milk," or "That is milk," depending on context and tone.
3. Two-Word Stage (18–24 months):
   • Children combine two words, showing early understanding of syntax (word order).
   • Example: "Daddy chair," "More juice." The order is often correct (Subject + Object, or Modifier + Head).
4. Telegraphic Stage (24–36 months):
   • Sentences get longer (3 or more words) but function words (auxiliary verbs, articles, prepositions) are often omitted—like a telegram that costs money per word!
   • Example: "Me go park now," instead of "I am going to the park now."
5. Post-Telegraphic Stage (36 months+):
   • Children begin to acquire remaining grammatical structures, including complex sentences, conjunctions (because, although), and verb inflections (tense).

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2. The Big Three Theories of Language Acquisition

Why do children follow these stages? How much is taught, and how much is innate? This is where the core theories come in.

2.1. The Behaviourist Theory (Skinner, 1957)

Core Idea: Language is learned entirely through imitation and reinforcement (rewards/punishments).

• Concept: Children repeat what they hear, and if they get a positive response (e.g., Mum smiles when they say "milk"), the behavior is reinforced.
• Analogy: Learning language is like training a pet. You teach them a trick (a word) and reward them when they get it right.
• Limitation: This theory cannot explain Virtuous Errors. If language is only imitation, how do children produce grammatically correct phrases they've never heard before (like "I runned")?

2.2. The Nativist Theory (Chomsky, Late 1950s)

Core Idea: Humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language.

• Concept: Chomsky proposed the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—a hypothetical "module" or part of the brain pre-wired with Universal Grammar (UG). UG provides all the basic grammatical structures common to all languages.
• Analogy: The LAD is like a basic computer operating system installed at birth. Exposure to a specific language (English, French, etc.) acts as the software download, turning on the settings for that language.
• Strength: This explains why ELA is rapid, why all children go through similar stages regardless of culture, and why children can produce novel sentences.
• Did you know? Chomsky popularized the idea of the Critical Period Hypothesis, suggesting that language acquisition must happen before puberty (around age 12) or it becomes much harder to master native fluency.

2.3. The Interactionist Theories (Bruner, Vygotsky)

Core Idea: Language acquisition is a blend of innate ability (Chomsky) and social context (Skinner), emphasizing the role of interaction.

• Concept (Bruner): Focuses on the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS)—the crucial role of parents and caregivers.
  • Adults often use Child-Directed Speech (CDS) (previously called 'Motherese' or 'Caregiver speech').
  • Features of CDS: Higher pitch, slower tempo, repetition, simplified grammar, and concrete nouns. This specialized input helps the child decode the linguistic structures.
• Concept (Vygotsky): Emphasizes that social interaction drives learning. Children learn language not just for communication, but to organise their thinking (inner speech).
• Key Takeaway: Interactionism argues that the social environment scaffolds (supports) the natural, biological tendency to acquire language.

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3. Later Language Development (LLD) in Teenagers

The syllabus requires you to consider language development in teenagers. By adolescence, native speakers have usually mastered the basic structure (grammar and lexis). So, what is still 'developing'?

3.1. Shifting Focus: From Structure to Social Use

LLD is less about learning *what* a verb is and more about learning *how* and *when* to use language appropriately. The focus shifts heavily to the levels of Pragmatics and Discourse.

1. Identity Formation: Teenagers use language to express their emerging identity separate from their parents. This involves adopting specific sociolects (language variety of a social group).
2. Sociolects and Group Membership: Language becomes a powerful tool for marking group membership (Syllabus 3.2).
   • This includes adopting specific, transient slang (e.g., "vibes," "lit").
   • Using group jargon (e.g., specific gaming terms, social media acronyms).
   • The rapid shift in lexis shows ongoing language development in response to social context.
3. Pragmatic Competence: Teenagers refine their understanding of context and inference. They learn subtleties like sarcasm, hedging (using vague language to soften a statement), and mastering the politeness principles required in adult interactions.
4. Mode and Genre Mastery: They develop expertise in using different communication modes (texting, video chat, formal essay writing) and genres, adapting register for each (e.g., knowing not to use caps lock in an email to a teacher).

Analogy: If ELA is about learning to drive a car (basic grammar), LLD is about learning to drive in specific, difficult weather conditions (social context) and mastering different vehicles (genres/modes).

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4. English as an Additional Language (EAL) Speakers

The syllabus includes data from EAL speakers (sometimes called L2 speakers). Their language development differs significantly from L1 acquisition because they already possess a fully formed native language system (L1).

4.1. The Role of L1 in EAL Learning

The existing L1 system often influences the learning of English, leading to predictable variations in the EAL speaker's output.

1. Interlanguage: This is a term for the learner's current, transitional linguistic system. It’s a dynamic state, combining features of their native language (L1), the target language (L2 - English), and general language learning strategies.
2. Transfer (or Interference): This occurs when the L1 structure or rules are mistakenly applied to English.
   • Negative Transfer: The L1 rule causes an error in L2. Example: A speaker of a language without articles (a, the) might omit them in English sentences: "Dog is hungry."
   • Positive Transfer: The L1 rule helps L2 acquisition. Example: A speaker whose L1 uses SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) structure will find English word order easier.

4.2. Features to Analyse in EAL Data

When analysing data from EAL speakers, look for variations influenced by L1:

• Phonological Variation: Different vowel or consonant sounds (accents) or missing sounds (e.g., a speaker whose L1 lacks the 'th' sound might substitute 'd' or 'z').
• Lexical and Semantic Variation: Using inappropriate synonyms or fixed expressions (collocations) due to direct, word-for-word translation from the L1 (e.g., "make a photograph" instead of "take a photograph").
• Grammatical Variation: Errors in verb tense consistency, subject-verb agreement, or use of prepositions, often influenced by the syntactic rules of the L1.