📚 Engaging with Ethnography - Group 1: Classifying the World
Welcome to the World of Order!
Hello anthropologists! This chapter, "Classifying the world," is fundamental to understanding how human societies operate.
Why? Because every culture, everywhere, has to find ways to sort, name, and make sense of the chaos of reality. We don't just see things; we organize them!
These notes will break down the complex anthropological ideas about classification—from how we categorize people (kinship) to how we structure the universe itself (symbolism). Don't worry if this seems tricky at first; we’ll use clear analogies to guide you.
SECTION I: What is Classification in Anthropology?
Classification, in an anthropological sense, is the process by which societies create order out of the world. It involves developing systems of categories, names, and relationships to manage cultural knowledge and social interaction.
Key Concept: The Cultural Nature of Categories
Anthropology emphasizes that these systems of classification are **not** universal or biological; they are **cultural constructions**.
- Culture: Classification is part of the deep structure of a culture, informing everything from language to behavior.
- Belief and Knowledge: These systems tell people what is real, what is important, and how knowledge should be organized (e.g., is disease caused by germs or by angry ancestors?).
- Analogy: Think of classification like the filing system on your computer. Everyone has a system (folders, tags, etc.), but if you share your computer with someone from another country, their filing system might be totally different—and both systems are valid for organizing data!
Did you know?
The famous anthropologist **Émile Durkheim** argued that human society is the very model upon which humans classify the rest of the world. The way we organize people (into groups, clans, etc.) influences how we organize objects and ideas (into species, categories, etc.).
🔑 Key Takeaway: Classification is how societies create predictable, shared reality. It connects deeply to cultural systems of Belief and Knowledge.
SECTION II: The Tools of Cultural Ordering
How do anthropologists study classification? They look at the mechanisms used by societies to draw boundaries and create meaning, often focusing on language and symbolism.
1. Structuralism and Binary Oppositions
The French anthropologist **Claude Lévi-Strauss** was central to understanding how the human mind classifies the world. His approach, **Structuralism**, posits that the mind organizes reality through basic structures, most importantly:
Binary Oppositions (Two Sides of the Same Coin):
- These are pairs of contrasting terms that define each other. We understand the world by dividing it into two mutually exclusive categories.
- Examples: **Raw / Cooked**, **Sacred / Profane**, **Nature / Culture**, **Male / Female**, **Good / Evil**.
- Symbolism: Binary oppositions are powerful tools of symbolism. For instance, the transition from "raw" (nature) to "cooked" (culture) is often symbolic of human society overcoming the natural world.
Applying the Concept (Step-by-Step):
If you are analyzing a myth or ritual, look for the underlying tension.
- Identify the opposing forces (e.g., the forest vs. the village).
- Determine what those forces symbolize anthropologically (Forest = Chaos/Nature; Village = Order/Culture).
- Analyze how the culture resolves or mediates the opposition (e.g., a ritual bridge between the two).
2. Ethnoscience and Folk Taxonomies
While structuralism looks at deep mental structures, **Ethnoscience** looks at the practical, observable ways a culture names and categorizes its environment.
- Ethnoscience: The study of how people in a particular culture classify and categorize things in the world, especially focusing on their language (e.g., how they name plants, animals, or colors).
- Taxonomy: A system of classification (like Linnaeus’s system for plants). A **Folk Taxonomy** is the indigenous, culturally specific system.
Example: A Western society might classify all edible tubers simply as "potatoes." An indigenous society that relies heavily on tubers might have dozens of specific names for different types, based on soil, texture, and preparation methods. Their classification system reflects the deep importance and practical knowledge surrounding that resource.
Memory Aid: Think of ET – **E**thnoscience focuses on the local **T**axonomy.
🔑 Key Takeaway: Classification is built using symbolic tools like Binary Oppositions (Lévi-Strauss) and practical systems like **Folk Taxonomies** (Ethnoscience).
SECTION III: Classifying People – Kinship and Social Relations
One of the most essential ways every society classifies the world is by categorizing other human beings. The primary mechanism for this is **Kinship**. This ties directly into the core concept of **Social Relations**.
1. Kinship Systems
Kinship is the web of social relationships that define who is related to whom. It establishes roles, responsibilities, inheritance, and marriage rules.
Terms of Address vs. Terms of Reference
- Terms of Address: What you *call* someone (e.g., "Dad").
- Terms of Reference: The specific category you place them in when talking *about* them (e.g., "Father's brother" or "Mother's sister").
Anthropologists study kinship terms because they reveal the underlying classification system. For example, in some cultures, a single term is used for "father" and "father's brother" (paternal uncle). This tells us that, socially, the uncle is classified in the same behavioral category as the father.
2. Descent and Group Classification
Descent rules classify people into groups based on shared ancestry. These rules are crucial for determining **Identity** and group membership.
- Bilateral Descent: You trace ancestry and membership equally through both the mother’s and the father’s sides (this is common in Western societies).
- Unilineal Descent: You trace ancestry exclusively through one side.
- Patrilineal: Tracing descent only through the father’s line. (You belong to your father’s group, his brother’s group, etc.)
- Matrilineal: Tracing descent only through the mother’s line. (You belong to your mother’s group, her sister’s group, etc.)
Common Mistake Alert!
Do not confuse Matrilineal descent (tracing group membership through the mother) with Matriarchy (rule by women). They are not the same! A matrilineal society may still have political **Power** held by men (e.g., a mother's brother).
🔑 Key Takeaway: Kinship is the cultural system for classifying people, establishing **Social Relations**, **Identity**, and determining who belongs to which group (often via rules of **Descent**).
SECTION IV: Classification, Identity, and Power (SL/HL Extension)
When classification moves from organizing plants to organizing humans, it inevitably intersects with the core concepts of **Power** and **Identity**. Cultural classifications often justify social hierarchies.
1. Classification as a Tool of Power
Social classifications categorize people not just by who they are related to, but by perceived worth or status. These systems often dictate access to resources and political power.
- The Caste System (India): A historic, rigid, highly stratified classification system based on birth (**Identity**). The system defines groups (Varnas and Jatis) based on spiritual purity and occupation, dramatically restricting **Social Relations** and interaction between groups. This is a clear example of how classification enforces **Power** inequalities.
- Racial Classification: Historically, Western science attempted to classify humans into "races" based on phenotypic differences. Anthropology rejects race as a biological category but studies how these classifications were used to justify colonialism, slavery, and discrimination. This is an example of culturally constructed classification used to wield **Power**.
2. Gender and Categorization
The classification of people into male/female (sex) and masculine/feminine (gender) is a critical area of anthropological study.
- Most societies classify gender as a binary opposition (male vs. female).
- However, many cultures have institutionalized roles for "third genders" (e.g., the Hijra in South Asia, the Two-Spirit people in some Native American cultures).
- This demonstrates that even something as seemingly fundamental as gender is subject to cultural classification and that some societies use **Symbolism** to classify identities that transcend the binary.
🔑 Key Takeaway: When applied to humans, classification systems (like caste or race) are mechanisms for defining **Identity** and maintaining structures of **Power** and inequality within a **Society**.