Philosophy | José Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses

Study Notes: José Ortega y Gasset – The Revolt of the Masses

Hello future philosophers! This text, The Revolt of the Masses (1930), is one of the most important works of 20th-century political and social philosophy. Ortega y Gasset offers a sharp critique of modern society and a warning about what happens when "average" individuals dominate cultural and political life.

Don’t worry if the language seems dramatic—Ortega was trying to shock his readers into seeing the philosophical dangers of the age. Our goal is to break down his core definitions and arguments so you can analyze and evaluate them effectively for Paper 2.

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1. Context and The Central Thesis

Ortega wrote this book in response to the political chaos and cultural shifts following World War I. He observed that the traditional structures of society—where leaders and thinkers guided cultural direction—were being overthrown by a new type of person.

Key Distinction: The Mass vs. The Minority (Elite)

Before diving in, we must understand that for Ortega, the terms "Mass" and "Minority" are not based on economic class or inherited status. They are psychological classifications based on how individuals approach life and self-demand.

• The Mass-Man (or Mass):

  The average person who feels exactly like everyone else, and who does not strive to be better than he is. He is characterized by a lack of self-demand and a deep self-satisfaction. He is happy to live inside the comfortable set of ideas provided by society.

• The Minority (or Select Man):

  The individual who places high demands upon himself, even if those demands are difficult. This is the person who strives for excellence and accepts responsibility for guiding society and culture. They live life as an aspiration, not a comfort.

Quick Analogy: Think of a challenging university course (like IB Philosophy!). The Minority student is one who pushes themselves to read the extra texts and wrestle with difficult concepts. The Mass-Man student is content just to do the bare minimum needed to pass, assuming that this minimum is "good enough" because everyone else does it.

Key Takeaway: The "Revolt" is not an economic uprising, but the psychological rebellion of the average individual who refuses to acknowledge any authority or value superior to their own average opinions.

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2. Characteristics of the Mass-Man

The Mass-Man is the philosophical subject of Ortega’s critique. He is dangerous not because he is stupid, but because he is satiated and self-satisfied. This creates an attitude of radical ingratitude.

a) The Sense of Plenitude and Radical Ingratitude

The 20th century provided the average person with unparalleled technical ease, comfort, and security (medicine, democracy, transport, etc.).

The Mass-Man is born into this world of abundance and takes it completely for granted. Ortega calls this the Sense of Plenitude (fullness or saturation).

The Mass-Man's error: He assumes this highly complex civilization—built by centuries of minority effort—is a natural force, like the air he breathes. He never feels obligated to maintain it or contribute to its difficulty. This leads to radical ingratitude.

Did you know? Ortega compared the Mass-Man to the spoiled child who, living in total luxury, feels no restraint and demands that his every whim be satisfied immediately. This lack of restraint is barbarism.

b) The Dominance of "Direct Action"

Because the Mass-Man is self-satisfied and has no patience for discussion, he is defined by his willingness to use "direct action"—i.e., force or violence—to impose his views.

Why?

• He has no respect for the institutions (like parliaments or reasoned debate) built to manage differences.
• He believes his opinion, simply because it is his, is correct and should be law.

Direct action is the abandonment of the complex procedures of civilization and a regression to primitivism. In politics, this means the end of true liberalism (which Ortega saw as respecting the rights of those who disagree with you).

c) The Barbarism of Specialization

This is a challenging concept, especially for HL students. Ortega notes that many of the "masses" are highly educated technical experts (scientists, doctors, engineers). How can an expert be a Mass-Man?

Ortega argues that the specialist who understands only his tiny field, but utterly rejects philosophy, politics, and historical context, becomes a philosophical barbarian.

• He is highly competent in his lab but completely ignorant and prejudiced outside of it.
• He acts like the Mass-Man: entitled to his opinion on all subjects, simply because he is competent in one.

This Barbarism of Specialization threatens knowledge because it fragments culture and removes the necessary moral and philosophical perspective required to guide technological advancements.

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3. The Political Danger: The State Swallowing Society

Ortega’s most explicit political warning concerns the nature of the modern state. He sees the state apparatus becoming the ultimate tool and expression of the Mass-Man’s psychology.

a) The Rise of the State as a Machine

The modern state has become a gigantic, powerful, anonymous machine—a bureaucracy that manages every aspect of life. It is the perfect structure for the Mass-Man because it offers effortless security.

The Mass-Man, lacking self-demand and demanding immediate solutions to all problems, looks to the immense state to fix everything. He says, "Here is a difficulty, the State must solve it."

b) The Danger of "The State Swallowing Society"

Ortega foresaw the danger of the state becoming so comprehensive and so powerful that it would crush the spontaneous life of society. When the State intervenes for every tiny reason, citizens lose the habit of personal responsibility, spontaneous action, and independent thought.

Quote to Memorize: Ortega warns: "The Mass-Man today is the State."

The state, run by anonymous functionaries (who are themselves Mass-Men), becomes an ever-growing organism of power, eventually suppressing the creativity and freedom of the very people it was meant to protect.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Ortega is not arguing against democracy itself, but against hyperdemocracy—the situation where the average opinion is imposed as law without any intellectual or moral appeal to higher principles (the law of the average).

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4. The Philosophical Solution: A Call for Great Endeavors

If the root of the problem is the Mass-Man's lack of self-demand, the solution must involve a fundamental shift back toward aspiration, responsibility, and historical consciousness.

a) The Importance of the Nation as a "Plan"

Ortega argued that a true nation or society is not just a geographic or ethnic entity; it is a dynamic project, a shared vision, and a joint venture toward a future goal. This joint effort forces individuals (the Mass-Man included) to demand something greater of themselves and to subordinate their immediate desires to a larger purpose.

b) The Necessity of Leadership

Since the Mass-Man is fundamentally incapable of self-governance in the philosophical sense, society requires leadership from the Minority. These aren't necessarily political rulers, but individuals who possess moral and intellectual authority, forcing the public to accept difficult duties and higher standards.

Key Point for Evaluation: Critics often argue this is an elitist view. Ortega would counter that the Minority does not lead by divine right, but by self-imposed obligation. They lead because they are the ones demanding excellence, which is a necessary quality for the continuance of civilization.

c) The Project of Europe

Ortega applied his analysis directly to Europe. He argued that the crisis of the masses was exacerbated by the narrowness of traditional nation-states. His ultimate vision was for a unified Europe—a supra-national project—which would be a grand, demanding purpose capable of galvanizing individuals out of their self-satisfaction and local pettiness.

This political philosophy aims to create a context (a "plan") so large and difficult that it requires the Minority to lead and the Mass-Man to accept guidance and responsibility.

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5. Synthesis and Evaluation for Paper 2

When studying this text for the IB, you must be ready to analyze Ortega’s arguments and evaluate their viability within the scope of Social and Political Philosophy.

Questions to Consider for Evaluation (AO3)

1. Is Ortega’s definition of the Mass-Man viable today?

   Evaluation Point: Does the Mass-Man’s reliance on "direct action" and rejection of reasoned debate align with modern political polarization or the rise of social media echo chambers?

2. Is his concept of the "Minority" necessarily elitist, or is it merely an argument for meritocracy based on moral rigor?

   Evaluation Point: Can a society truly function if the majority does not feel represented, even if the "Minority" claims to possess greater responsibility?

3. How does Ortega’s critique of the State relate to concepts of justice, freedom, and equality?

   Evaluation Point: Ortega suggests that an over-powerful state limits freedom (by crushing spontaneous action) in exchange for providing perceived security. Is this a necessary trade-off in complex modern societies?