Philosophy | Friedrich Nietzsche, The Genealogy of Morals

Welcome to Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morals!

Hello future philosopher! You are about to dive into one of the most challenging and exciting texts in modern philosophy: Friedrich Nietzsche’s On the Genealogy of Morals (1887).
This text is essential for your IB Philosophy Paper 2, which requires deep knowledge and critical analysis of a prescribed text.

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first. Nietzsche wants you to think like a historian, a psychologist, and a revolutionary all at once. We will break down his powerful arguments about where our modern concepts of 'good' and 'evil' actually came from, and why their origins matter.

Why Study the Genealogy? (Context and Goal)

• The Goal: Nietzsche is not interested in *what* is moral, but *how* morality came to be and *who* invented it. He believes modern Western morality (based on concepts like altruism, equality, and guilt) is fundamentally weak and life-denying.
• The Method: He uses a genealogical method. This means digging into the historical, social, and psychological circumstances surrounding the birth of moral concepts, rather than accepting them as timeless truths.
• Key Insight: Moral concepts like "Good" and "Evil" did not emerge logically; they were weapons forged in a socio-political struggle between different types of people.

Section 1: Nietzsche's Genealogical Method

Before diving into the three essays, we must understand how Nietzsche approaches history.

The Problem with Traditional Morality

Nietzsche argues that previous philosophers (like Kant or the English utilitarians) were lazy. They assumed that 'good' meant whatever was useful, selfless, or logical. Nietzsche calls this the English psychologist’s mistake.
He argues they ignored the actual messy, dark history of moral concepts.

The Difference between Origin (Ursprung) and Purpose

Nietzsche insists that the origin (how something was born) is often totally different from its current purpose (how we use it now).

• Analogy: Think of the origin of a building. It might have started as a military fort (origin). Over time, it stopped being used for war and became a university campus (purpose). Its original, violent meaning is forgotten, replaced by a new, peaceful meaning.

Nietzsche applies this to moral terms: The original meaning of "good" had nothing to do with being selfless or altruistic.

Section 2: The First Essay – Master Morality vs. Slave Morality

This essay details the first great conflict in the history of values: the battle between the noble/strong (masters) and the weak/priestly class (slaves).

1. Master Morality (The Noble Perspective)

This is the original, aristocratic morality of powerful civilizations (like ancient Rome, Greece, or Viking society).

• Definition of ‘Good’: ‘Good’ simply means *noble*, *powerful*, *high-spirited*, *affirmatory*. It is defined by the masters themselves—what they are.
• Definition of ‘Bad’: ‘Bad’ (not *Evil*) means *lowly*, *common*, *weak*. It is an afterthought, merely the absence of noble qualities. It is not condemned, merely disregarded.
• Core Attitude: Life affirmation. The master acts spontaneously and values strength, courage, and pride.

Did you know? In many ancient languages, the word for "good" was often the same as the word for "noble" or "warrior."

2. Slave Morality (The Priestly Perspective)

Slave morality is born out of suppression, suffering, and weakness. It is characterized by one central, poisonous emotion: Ressentiment.

Understanding Ressentiment (Key Term!)

Ressentiment is a deep, internalized hostility or bitterness felt by the powerless against those who possess power or privilege, which they cannot express externally.
Since the weak cannot *act* against the masters, they find an indirect form of revenge: creating values.

• The Shift: Master morality starts by affirming *itself* ("We are good"). Slave morality starts by negating *the other* ("They are evil").
• Definition of ‘Evil’: The masters are declared 'Evil'. Everything they value—strength, aggression, pride—is redefined as sinful, cruel, or wicked.
• Definition of ‘Good’: ‘Good’ then becomes whatever the slaves are: patient, humble, selfless, suffering. This is a secondary, reactive definition.

The Transvaluation of Values (The Great Victory)

Nietzsche argues that, historically, the slave values won. This "transvaluation" (reversal) of values, driven primarily by the Judeo-Christian tradition, managed to convince the world that the aristocratic, noble values were inherently wicked, leading to the establishment of modern morality.

Analogy: Imagine a powerful eagle catching a lamb. The lamb (slave) cannot fight back. Instead, the lamb goes home and writes a doctrine stating: "Eagles who catch and eat others are wicked and cruel. True goodness is being soft, gentle, and meek like me." The lamb then convinces all the other animals this is the universal truth.

Section 3: The Second Essay – Guilt, Conscience, and Punishment

In the second essay, Nietzsche asks: Where did the painful, internalized feelings of guilt and bad conscience come from?

1. The Origin of Justice and Debt

Nietzsche traces the concept of guilt (German: Schuld) back to the most ancient relationship: the economic relationship between creditor and debtor.

• Justice as Exchange: Early justice was a raw calculation of exchange and compensation. If you owed someone a debt, they had the right to harm you in return (compensation for pain).
• Cruelty as Memory: Why was early punishment so brutal? Nietzsche suggests that inflicting pain was the only way to create a memory that would last in pre-civilized society. This established the concept of *responsibility*—the ability to keep a promise.

2. The Invention of the Bad Conscience

This is the crucial step. Early humans were accustomed to acting externally (master morality). But as societies developed and external action was restricted by laws and communal living, natural instincts had to be repressed.

Nietzsche calls this the great "caging."

• The Caged Animal: If you cage a wild animal (primitive man) and prevent it from using its natural strength and aggression, that energy doesn't disappear; it turns inward.
• Internalization: The instincts for hostility, cruelty, and persecution turn against the individual themselves. This self-directed aggression creates the "bad conscience."
• The Result: Man starts to view his *own* natural desires and instincts as fundamentally wrong or "sinful." He becomes cruel to himself.

3. The Role of Religion (The Ultimate Debt)

The priestly class (slave morality) took this self-cruelty and perfected it by introducing the idea of eternal debt to God.

• Instead of owing a person money, man owes his *entire existence* to a creator.
• This debt is so huge it is *unpayable*, leading to infinite guilt and suffering.
• Nietzsche sees modern guilt and religious sin not as natural moral feelings, but as historical psychological diseases born from repressed instincts and magnified by religious doctrines.

Section 4: The Third Essay – What Do Ascetic Ideals Mean?

The third essay addresses the meaning of ascetic ideals—the belief that one should deny earthly pleasures, wealth, and the body for spiritual purification or higher goals. Nietzsche asks: Why would anyone embrace suffering and self-denial?

1. What is the Ascetic Ideal?

The ascetic ideal involves fasting, celibacy, poverty, and withdrawal from worldly affairs. While it seems like self-sacrifice, Nietzsche argues it is a manifestation of the Will to Power—but directed against life itself.

The Philosophers and the Ideal

Nietzsche examines how the ideal serves different groups:

• The Artist: The artist (like Wagner, whom Nietzsche critiques) uses the ideal to enhance creativity or detach from the vulgarity of life.
• The Philosopher: Philosophers (like Schopenhauer or Plato) often embrace asceticism (poverty, simple life) because it allows them freedom from distraction and focus on the intellect. They despise the world of the senses.

2. The Ascetic Priest (The Ideal’s True Master)

The most important figure for the ideal is the priest, who takes the suffering inherent in life and gives it a meaning.

• The Problem of Suffering: The biggest threat to humanity is not suffering itself, but meaningless suffering. If a person suffers and doesn't know why, they despair and fall into nihilism.
• The Priest’s Function: The priest provides a diagnosis and a cure for suffering.
  • Diagnosis: "You are suffering because you are sinful, faulty, or guilty." (Externalizing the cause of internal pain).
  • Cure: The ascetic practices (prayer, ritual, self-denial) redirect the sufferer's *ressentiment* away from the social order and toward themselves.

By making suffering "their own fault," the priest gives the sufferers a purpose and a form of activity, thus protecting them from complete annihilation (nihilism).

3. Science and the New Ideal

Nietzsche argues that even modern science is not truly free from the ascetic ideal. Science often seeks truth at any cost, valuing objectivity, skepticism, and rigor—a kind of intellectual self-denial.

• The "unconditional Will to Truth" (the driving force of modern science) is itself a metaphysical belief—it requires a profound denial of instinct, error, and passion in favor of objective, dispassionate facts.
• Nietzsche suggests that the belief in Truth, like the belief in God, is an ultimate ideal that sacrifices life affirmation.

The Ultimate Danger

The ascetic ideal, though rooted in a deep *Will to Power* (the will to dominate and interpret), has poisoned life by promoting nihilism (the belief that life has no intrinsic meaning).

The entire history of Western morality, from the slave revolt to the modern scientific search for truth, is, for Nietzsche, a vast mechanism designed to suppress vitality and deny the value of earthly existence.

Study Guide Focus: How to Approach Nietzsche in Paper 2

To succeed in Paper 2, you must demonstrate detailed knowledge of the text and the ability to critically analyze Nietzsche’s claims.

Key Concepts to Define and Apply (SL/HL)

When answering essay questions, make sure these terms are accurately defined and used in context:

• Genealogy: The method of tracing origins to expose hidden power dynamics.
• Master Morality: Values based on affirmation, strength, and spontaneity (Good/Bad).
• Slave Morality: Values based on reaction, weakness, and reflection (Good/Evil).
• Ressentiment: The fundamental psychological state that gives birth to slave morality (internalized, creative revenge).
• Bad Conscience: Instincts turned inward due to social repression; self-cruelty.
• Ascetic Ideal: The systematic denial of life and body, used by the priest to provide suffering with meaning.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Treating Master/Slave as Social Classes: While they originated in class differences, Nietzsche treats them as *psychological types* or *value systems*. A rich person today can hold slave morality values (e.g., self-pity, guilt).
2. Confusing 'Bad' and 'Evil': 'Bad' is merely 'not noble' (Master). 'Evil' is 'wicked and deserving of condemnation' (Slave). This distinction is vital.
3. Assuming Nietzsche is a Moralist: Nietzsche does not offer a new moral system! He is critiquing the *value of morality itself*. His goal is to liberate us *from* these historical chains.

Evaluation Questions (HL Focus)

When evaluating Nietzsche's work, consider these critical points:

• Historical Accuracy: Is Nietzsche's history accurate, or is it a persuasive philosophical fiction? Does he cherry-pick examples (like the ancient Hebrews and Romans)?
• Psychological Reductionism: Does reducing all morality to *ressentiment* and power struggles oversimplify human motivation? Are there genuine, non-reactive moral impulses?
• The Alternative: If modern morality is flawed, what is Nietzsche offering instead? (The hint is the Übermensch—though not detailed in the *Genealogy*, the text sets the stage for a new, self-affirming kind of human who overcomes nihilism.)