History | Early Modern states (1450–1789)

👋 Welcome to Early Modern States (1450–1789) Study Notes!

Hi team! This chapter is one of the most fascinating topics in World History because it’s where the "modern" world really begins. We are looking at how messy, decentralized medieval kingdoms transformed into strong, centralized nation-states—the kind of political entities we recognize today.

Why is this period important for the IB?
It is a crucial time for exploring the concepts of change, causation (why did states centralize?), and consequence (the rise of Absolutism vs. Constitutionalism). Understanding this transition is essential for Paper 2 essays.

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1. Defining the Early Modern State (1450–1789)

What is a "State" in this context?

In the medieval era, power was fragmented. A local noble often held more actual power over his territory than the distant king. The Early Modern period saw rulers attempting to reverse this trend.

The goal of Early Modern rulers was to achieve Sovereignty.

• Key Term: Sovereignty: The exclusive right to exercise supreme authority over a defined territory and population. It means the ruler (the state) is the only one who can make laws, wage war, and collect taxes internally.
• Contrast: Before 1450, sovereignty was often shared (the king shared power with the Pope, powerful nobles, or city councils).

Contextual Factors Driving Centralization

Why did rulers need more power now?

A. The Military Revolution

The way war was fought changed dramatically around the 15th century.

• Shift in Tactics: Gunpowder weapons (cannons, muskets) made medieval castles and knights obsolete.
• Consequence: These new technologies were incredibly expensive and required specialized, trained soldiers (not just local farmers answering a noble's call).
• The Need: Only a wealthy, central government could afford a permanent, professional Standing Army. This forced rulers to demand more taxes and control.

B. Religious Fragmentation (The Reformation)

The Protestant Reformation (starting 1517) shattered religious unity in Europe. Rulers had to choose a side (Catholic or Protestant), which deeply impacted their internal control.

• Example: The Wars of Religion in France required the monarchy to assert supreme political power above religious factionalism to restore order.

2. Tools of State Consolidation (How power was built)

The transition to early modern states was a process of taking power away from local feudal lords and placing it in the hands of the monarch or the central government.

A. Financial Control (Taxes and Economics)

Money is power. Rulers needed consistent income, not just emergency funds requested from the nobility.

• Taxation: Centralized states established permanent, non-negotiable systems of taxation (e.g., taxes on salt or land). This required accurate census-taking and effective policing.
• Key Term: Mercantilism: The primary economic theory of the time. The belief that a nation’s power depended on its wealth, specifically gold and silver. Governments actively intervened to ensure exports exceeded imports (favorable balance of trade).
• Analogy: Mercantilism is like a country trying to keep all its pocket money and constantly getting paid by others, but never buying anything from outside.

B. Professional Bureaucracy

Rulers stopped relying on noble loyalty and started relying on trained administrators.

• What is a Bureaucracy? A system of government where decisions are made by non-elected state officials, following fixed administrative rules.
• Example (France): Louis XIV used Intendants—royal officials sent out to the provinces to manage taxes and justice, bypassing local noble power entirely.

🧠 Memory Aid: To centralize power, a ruler needed the three B’s:
Bureaucracy (Administration), Bullets (Military), and Banks (Taxes/Mercantilism).

C. Control over Law and Religion

The state sought to establish one supreme set of laws and, often, one official religion.

• Divine Right of Kings: This political theory asserted that the monarch’s authority came directly from God, making him accountable only to God. Challenging the King was sacrilege. (This was essential for Absolute Monarchies).
• Legal System: Creating unified national law codes reduced the power of varied local customs and courts.

3. Contrasting Political Models

While all states tried to centralize, they achieved it in different ways, leading to two major governmental models by the 18th century: Absolute Monarchy and Constitutional State.

Model 1: Absolute Monarchy (E.g., France, Spain, Russia)

Key Concept: Unchallenged Power

Absolute monarchs claimed total authority over the state, justified by the Divine Right theory. The state was considered the private property of the ruler.

The Classic Example: Louis XIV of France (The "Sun King")

Louis XIV (reigned 1643–1715) is the perfect example of Absolutism. His famous quote was, "L’État, c’est moi" ("I am the State").

• Controlling the Nobility: Louis required the great nobles to live at the Palace of Versailles. This turned potential rivals into courtiers who competed for trivial favors, keeping them distracted and financially dependent on the King.
• Religious Uniformity: In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes (which had granted religious tolerance to Protestants/Huguenots). This enforced strict Catholic conformity under the Crown.
• Consequence: While Louis built France into a major European power, his lavish spending (Versailles and wars) and high taxes left the country deeply indebted, planting seeds for the French Revolution.

Model 2: The Constitutional State (E.g., England/Great Britain, Dutch Republic)

Key Concept: Shared/Limited Power

In this model, the power of the monarch is restricted by law, usually defined by a constitution or parliamentary acts. Power is shared between the ruler and a representative body (Parliament).

The English Experience: From Conflict to Limited Monarchy

England’s path to centralization was marked by massive conflict between the Crown (Stuarts) and Parliament over taxation and authority.

• English Civil War (1642–1651): Parliament defeated and executed King Charles I, proving that the monarch was not above the law.
• The Glorious Revolution (1688): A peaceful transfer of power that solidified Parliament’s supremacy. King James II was deposed, and William and Mary were invited to rule, but only if they accepted Parliament’s terms.
• The Bill of Rights (1689): The foundational document of the constitutional monarchy. It stated that:
  1. The King could not suspend laws without Parliament’s consent.
  2. Parliament must approve all taxes.
  3. Subjects had the right to petition the King.

Analogy: If Louis XIV was the sole CEO, the English King after 1689 was more like the Chairman of the Board, while Parliament acted as the executive board with binding veto power.

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4. Synthesis and Key Takeaways for IB History

Comparing the Models

When studying Early Modern states, remember to compare the *methods* and *consequences* of the two primary models:

	Absolute State (France)	Constitutional State (England)
Source of Authority	Divine Right (King is source of law).	Law/Parliamentary Supremacy (The law is above the King).
Tools Used	Intendants, standing armies, massive court spectacle (Versailles).	Bill of Rights, civil war, controlled finance (Parliament).
Consequence	Centralized, militarily powerful, but financially unstable.	Politically stable, developed strong financial institutions (Bank of England), paved way for industrial and commercial growth.

Understanding Causation

Remember that the rise of the Early Modern state was not an accident—it was a consequence of key forces acting upon the state:

1. The cost of warfare (Military Revolution).
2. The need for revenue (Mercantilism and Taxation).
3. The challenge of internal division (Religious Wars/Noble Resistance).

Don't worry if the names and dates seem overwhelming at first! Focus on the *process* of centralization, the *tools* used by rulers (bureaucracy, taxes), and the *consequences* of the different models (Louis XIV vs. the English Parliament).

You’ve got this!