Hello there, Sociologists! Welcome to Paper 2: The Family

Welcome to the exciting world of family theory! This chapter, Theories of the family and social change, is crucial for Paper 2. We are moving beyond describing what families look like and asking: Why do families exist? Who benefits from them? And why are they changing so quickly?

Don't worry if sociological theories seem abstract. We will break down the perspectives (Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism) as clear toolkits for analysis, and then use them to understand why the family unit is becoming incredibly diverse. Let's dive in!

Part 1: Classic Sociological Perspectives on the Role of the Family (Syllabus 3.1)

These perspectives offer different answers to the question: What is the main purpose of the family in society?

1. Functionalist Accounts: The Family as Society's Backbone

Functionalism views society as a complex machine where every part (like the family) performs a necessary job (a function) to keep the whole thing stable and running smoothly.

Key Idea: The nuclear family is the most efficient and beneficial structure for both its members and society.

Functions of the Family (G.P. Murdock, 1949)

Murdock argued that the family performs four universal functions (found in every society):

  • Sexual: Stable satisfaction of the sex drive (prevents social disruption).
  • Reproductive: Reproduction of the next generation.
  • Economic: Meeting economic needs (e.g., shelter and food).
  • Educational (or Socialisation): Socialising children into shared norms and values.

Memory Aid: Remember Murdock’s four functions using the acronym SREE.

Parsonian Functions and the 'Loss of Functions' Debate

Talcott Parsons (USA) focused on the family in modern, industrial society (the nuclear family). He argued that while the family has lost many functions (like economic production, which moved to factories), it retains two "irreducible" (essential) functions:

  1. Primary Socialisation: Teaching children basic norms and values of society.
  2. Stabilisation of Adult Personalities (S.A.P.): The family acts as a "warm bath" or emotional refuge, allowing adults to de-stress from work, thereby stabilising society.

The Debate: Loss of Functions
Functionalists acknowledge that modern families have outsourced functions (e.g., education to schools, healthcare to hospitals). Critics argue that this loss of functions makes the family less important, while Functionalists maintain the core emotional and socialisation roles are vital.

Key Takeaway (Functionalism): The family is essential for stability and social order. It is a necessary and universal institution.

2. Marxist Accounts: The Family Serving Capitalism

Marxists argue that society is based on conflict between the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat). They see the family not as a benefit to all, but primarily as an institution that supports the capitalist economic system.

How the Family Benefits Capitalism:

  1. Ideological Control: The family acts as an Ideological State Apparatus (ISA), socialising children into accepting hierarchy and inequality ("daddy is the boss, just like the boss at work"). This creates passive workers who don't challenge the system.
  2. Reproduction of Labour Power: The family physically and emotionally maintains the current workforce (men are fed and rested ready for work) and reproduces the next generation of workers at zero cost to the employer.
  3. Unit of Consumption: The family is targeted by advertising to buy goods (e.g., buying a bigger house, new clothes for the children). This consumer spending drives capitalist profits.

Did you know? Classical Marxists argued that the family only became nuclear with capitalism to ensure the inheritance of private property (wealth) from father to son.

Key Takeaway (Marxism): The family is a tool of capitalist exploitation, reinforcing inequality and consumerism.

3. Feminist Responses: Challenging Patriarchy

Feminists argue that both Functionalist and Marxist perspectives ignore the most important dimension of family life: gender inequality and the way the family subordinates women. The family is seen as an institution of patriarchy (male dominance).

Different Feminist Perspectives on the Family:

Feminism is not one single theory; it contains several strands:

  • Liberal Feminism: Focuses on campaigning for legal changes and policy reforms to achieve gender equality (e.g., equal pay, divorce laws). They see progress being made towards a more equal family.
  • Marxist Feminism: Agrees with Marxists that capitalism exploits people, but argues the family is a source of double exploitation—of both women and the working class. Women's unpaid housework supports capitalism by maintaining the workforce for free.
  • Radical Feminism: Argues that patriarchy is the root cause of inequality, not capitalism. They see the family as the main site of oppression and the source of men's dominance (through sexual control and domestic violence).

Analogy: If Functionalists see the family as a nice, cosy cushion, Radical Feminists see it as a cage built by men.

Key Takeaway (Feminism): The family is an institution structured by patriarchy, mainly serving the needs of men and/or capitalism, rather than all members equally.


Part 2: Diversity and Social Change (Syllabus 3.2)

Societies are undergoing rapid change, and so is the family. This section looks at the evidence for and causes of this increased diversity.

1. Changing Patterns in Family Life

Major social changes have directly impacted how people form and dissolve relationships:

Causes and Consequences of Changing Patterns (Marriage, Cohabitation, Divorce, Separation):

  1. Increased Divorce Rates:
    • Causes: Legal changes (easier, cheaper divorce), decline in stigma/secularisation (less religious pressure), rising expectations of marriage (demand for emotional fulfillment), increased financial independence of women.
    • Consequences: Rise in lone-parent households and reconstituted families.
  2. Decreased Marriage Rates / Increased Cohabitation:
    • Causes: Cohabitation is now socially acceptable, people delay marriage due to education/careers, marriage is seen as less necessary or too costly.
    • Consequence: Cohabitation often acts as a trial marriage or a permanent alternative.
  3. Fewer Children / Delayed Childbirth:
    • Causes: Availability of contraception, focus on careers, increased cost of raising children.
    • Consequence: Smaller family size overall.

2. Different Family and Household Forms

While the nuclear family (two parents, dependent children) remains common, sociologists recognize many other forms:

  • Extended Family: Vertically extended (grandparents) or horizontally extended (aunts/uncles).
  • Lone-Parent Household: A single parent (usually female) raising children. Often results from divorce or separation.
  • Reconstituted (or Blended) Family: Formed when two partners (one or both of whom have children from previous relationships) move in together.
  • Single-Person Household: An individual living alone (often due to being elderly, widowed, or choosing to live independently).
  • Same-Sex Families: Couples raising children (either through adoption, surrogacy, or previous relationships).
  • Families of Choice: Groups of people (often friends or non-blood relatives) who choose to live together and support each other as if they were kin. (Especially relevant in postmodern society.)

3. Dimensions of Family Diversity

The sociologists Rapoport and Rapoport (1982) argued that family diversity is not just about different structures, but exists across multiple dimensions:

  • Organisational Diversity: Differences in the structure of the family (e.g., whether roles are symmetrical or traditional, whether it’s nuclear or extended).
  • Cultural Diversity: Differences in norms and values between families of different ethnic or religious groups (e.g., South Asian families often having stronger extended ties).
  • Class Diversity: Differences based on social class, impacting resources, life chances, and parental styles (e.g., working-class families often relying on kin networks for support).

4. Theoretical Debates on Diversity and the Nuclear Family

The New Right Perspective

The New Right holds a conservative view, stressing traditional values.

  • View on Diversity: Sees diversity as a sign of social decline and moral decay.
  • Dominance of the Nuclear Family: Argues the conventional nuclear family is the only truly moral and stable family form.
  • Critique of Non-Nuclear Forms: They are particularly critical of lone-parent families, arguing they lead to welfare dependency and poorly socialised children.
(Example: Policies promoting marriage and two-parent families often reflect New Right thinking.)

Postmodernist Perspective

Postmodernists argue that we now live in an era of choice and freedom, where traditional rules have broken down.

  • View on Diversity: Sees diversity as entirely positive and normal. It is simply a reflection of increased choice and individual identity projects.
  • Dominance of the Nuclear Family: Argues that the idea of a dominant nuclear family is a myth; family forms are highly fluid and negotiated by individuals (e.g., Giddens’ pure relationship).
  • Focus on Individual Choice: People are free to construct 'families of choice' based on personal need rather than legal or religious obligation.

5. The Influence of the State and Social Policy

The government (the State) uses social policies (laws, taxes, welfare) to influence family life, often reflecting the dominant sociological perspective at the time.

  • New Right Influence: Policies promoting tax breaks for married couples suggest the state prioritises the nuclear family structure.
  • Feminist Critique of Policy: Policies related to childcare or parental leave often reinforce traditional gender roles, assuming women will take primary responsibility for care.
  • Direct Change: Policies like the Divorce Reform Act (making divorce easier) have directly caused the increase in lone-parent and reconstituted families.

Quick Review Box
Functionalists: Family maintains order.
Marxists: Family maintains capitalism.
Feminists: Family maintains patriarchy.
New Right: Family diversity is bad.
Postmodernists: Family diversity is normal and reflects choice.


You've successfully covered the core theories and the complex nature of family change! Remember to use specific theorists (Murdock, Parsons, Rapoport) in your essays to demonstrate strong AO1 Knowledge. Keep up the excellent work!