Psychology (9990) | Bandura et al. (aggression)

Study Notes: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – Aggression and Social Learning

Welcome, future psychologists! This core study by Bandura is one of the most famous pieces of research in all of Psychology. It’s the cornerstone of the Learning Approach, showing how we pick up new behaviours—even aggressive ones—just by watching others.
Don't worry if the details seem tricky at first. We will break down the procedure step-by-step so you can ace those exam questions!

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Section 1: The Learning Approach Context

The Learning Approach assumes that most of our behaviour is learned from our environment, rather than being innate (born with us).

Key Assumptions of the Learning Approach (Syllabus Reference)

• We all begin life as a blank slate (tabula rasa).
• Behaviour is shaped by experiences and interactions with the environment, and these changes are directly observable.
• Learning occurs through processes like Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Social Learning.

Bandura's study falls under Social Learning Theory (SLT), which adds a cognitive element to traditional behaviourism, focusing on imitation.

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Section 2: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – Social Learning of Aggression

Full Reference: Bandura, A, Ross, D and Ross, SA (1961), Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models.

2.1 The Psychology Investigated: Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Bandura proposed that learning can occur indirectly through observation and imitation, rather than just through direct reinforcement.

Key Concepts of SLT

• Modelling: A person learns by observing a 'model' performing a behaviour.
• Imitation: Copying the model's behaviour.
• Vicarious Reinforcement: Observing the model being rewarded for the behaviour increases the likelihood of the observer imitating it. (The opposite is true for vicarious punishment).

Memory Aid: The "Imitation Recipe" (ARMM)

For imitation to occur, four conditions must be met (though the 1961 study mainly focused on observation):

1. Attention: The observer must pay attention to the model.
2. Retention: The observer must be able to remember the behaviour.
3. Motor Reproduction: The observer must be able to physically reproduce the behaviour.
4. Motivation: The observer must have a reason (e.g., believing they will be rewarded).

2.2 Background and Aim

Before this study, most research into learning aggression focused on direct reinforcement (e.g., if a child is rewarded for hitting, they hit again). Bandura wanted to see if aggression could be learned purely through watching a model.

The Aim of the Study

The primary aim was to investigate whether children would imitate aggressive behaviour when witnessed in an adult model, particularly when the model was no longer present.

Secondary aims included investigating:

1. Whether the sex of the model made a difference (i.e., would children imitate same-sex models more?).
2. Whether the sex of the child made a difference (i.e., are boys generally more aggressive than girls?).

2.3 Procedure and Methodology

Research Method and Design

• Method: A laboratory experiment, allowing strict control over variables.
• Design: Independent measures design. Participants were placed into one of the experimental groups or a control group.

Sample and Sampling

• Sample Size: 72 children (36 boys and 36 girls).
• Age: Ranging from 3 years 5 months to 6 years 9 months (mean age 4 years 4 months).
• Sampling Technique: All were students at the Stanford University Nursery School. The sampling technique is not explicitly stated but is likely opportunity sampling.

Controls (Matching Participants)

To ensure any differences in aggression levels at the end were due to the IV (the model), Bandura first measured the children's pre-existing aggression levels by asking nursery teachers and an experimenter to rate them on a 4-item, 5-point rating scale.
The children were then matched and placed into groups so that each group had similar average initial aggression scores. This is a very important control!

Independent Variables (IVs)

The experiment had three main conditions (plus the control group):

1. Aggressive Model Group: Children observed an aggressive adult model. (24 children total).
2. Non-Aggressive Model Group: Children observed a non-aggressive adult model playing quietly. (24 children total).
3. Control Group: Children did not observe any model. (24 children total).

In groups 1 and 2, the sex of the model (male or female) and the sex of the child (boy or girl) were also varied, creating 8 sub-groups (e.g., boy watches female aggressive model, girl watches male non-aggressive model, etc.).

Dependent Variable (DV)

The DV was the amount of imitative aggression displayed by the children in Stage 3, measured through controlled observation using behavioural categories.

Step-by-Step Procedure

Stage 1: Modelling (10 minutes)

• The child was brought into a room with the adult model.
• Aggressive condition: The model played aggressively for 10 minutes, specifically using a Bobo doll. Aggressive acts included hitting the doll with a hammer and shouting phrases like "Sock him in the nose!" and "Pow!"
• Non-aggressive condition: The model played quietly with construction toys, ignoring the Bobo doll.

Stage 2: Mild Aggression Arousal (2 minutes)

• The child was taken to a second room and shown attractive toys (e.g., a fire engine).
• After playing briefly, the experimenter told the child that these were special toys reserved for other children.
• Purpose: This was done to mildly frustrate all children, ensuring that any subsequent aggressive behaviour wasn't just due to natural excitement, but was a motivated response to frustration.

Stage 3: Testing for Imitation (20 minutes)

• The child was taken to a third room containing both aggressive toys (like the Bobo doll, mallet, and gun) and non-aggressive toys (like crayons, tea set).
• The experimenter left the child alone for 20 minutes and observed their behaviour through a one-way mirror.
• Data Collection: Observers used a time sampling method, recording behaviour every 5 seconds, using specific behavioural categories.

Behavioural Categories for Observation

Aggressive acts were categorised into three types:

1. Imitative Aggression: Exact copies of the model's acts (e.g., hitting the Bobo doll with the mallet).
2. Partial Imitation: Similar actions but not exactly copied (e.g., hitting the doll but not with the hammer).
3. Non-Imitative Aggression: Novel aggression not shown by the model (e.g., shooting the doll with the toy gun, or kicking other objects).

2.4 Results and Findings

Main Quantitative Findings

1. Imitation of Aggression: Children in the aggressive model group showed significantly more imitation of the model's physical and verbal aggression compared to the non-aggressive and control groups.
2. Sex of Model: Children were more likely to imitate the behaviour of the same-sex model. For example, boys who saw an aggressive male model were significantly more aggressive than boys who saw an aggressive female model.
3. Sex of Child: Boys were generally more physically aggressive than girls across all conditions (e.g., kicking the Bobo doll). Girls tended to imitate more of the model's verbal aggression than physical aggression.

Did you know? The non-aggressive model condition produced the lowest levels of aggression overall, even lower than the control group, suggesting the passive model had an inhibiting effect on behaviour.

2.5 Conclusion

Bandura concluded that aggressive behaviour can be acquired simply through observation and imitation, supporting the principles of Social Learning Theory.
The study also supports the idea of sex-typing, where children are more influenced by models whom they perceive to be similar to themselves (i.e., same-sex). The fact that boys were more physically aggressive is consistent with societal gender roles.

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Section 3: Evaluation (Strengths, Weaknesses, and Debates)

3.1 Methodology Evaluation

Strengths of the Methodology (Lab Experiment & Controls)

• High Control: The study was a laboratory experiment, meaning Bandura controlled many extraneous variables, such as the environment (the rooms), the actions of the models (standardised script), and the pre-existing aggression levels (through matching). This increases internal validity (we can be sure the IV caused the DV).
• Reliability: The use of inter-rater reliability (having two independent observers rate the children's behaviour) and clear behavioural categories ensured that the results were consistent and objective.
• Quantitative Data: Numerical counts of aggressive acts allowed for statistical analysis and easy comparison between the groups.

Weaknesses of the Methodology

• Low Ecological Validity: As a lab experiment, the setting (a controlled room with a Bobo doll) is artificial and not typical of how children learn aggression in real life. Therefore, generalisability to everyday life is limited.
• Demand Characteristics: The Bobo doll is designed to be hit. The children might have guessed the aim (to hit the doll) and simply been acting in a way they thought was expected of them (which lowers validity).
• The "Aggression" Measure: Is hitting a doll the same as hitting a person? The behaviour measured may not reflect genuine aggression but merely playful imitation, questioning the validity of the DV.

3.2 Ethical Issues (Use of Children)

Bandura's study raises several key ethical concerns related to the use of children in psychological research.

• Protection from Harm (Minimising Harm): The main issue. Children were potentially taught aggressive behaviours they did not previously know, which goes against the principle of protecting participants from psychological harm.
• Lack of Debriefing: Given the young age of the participants, debriefing them and ensuring they were returned to their previous state (i.e., undoing the learned aggression) would have been difficult or impossible.
• Valid Consent: Although parental consent was likely obtained, young children cannot give truly valid consent as they cannot fully understand the nature and purpose of the study.

Note: While modern ethics boards might not approve this study, it was a highly influential piece of research that significantly advanced our understanding of learning.

3.3 Issues and Debates

Nature vs. Nurture (The Learning Approach)

• Strong Nurture Focus: This study strongly supports the nurture side of the debate. It shows that aggression is not purely innate but is learned from the environment (specifically, from the social models present).
• Nature Interaction: However, the findings that boys were consistently more aggressive than girls could suggest an interactionist perspective. Boys might have a slight biological predisposition (nature) towards physical aggression (perhaps due to hormones), which is then reinforced by social learning (nurture).

Application to Everyday Life

The findings have significant application to everyday life, particularly concerning media and parenting:

• Media Censorship: The study supports arguments for limiting children’s exposure to aggressive media (e.g., violent movies or video games), as children can learn and imitate these behaviours vicariously.
• Positive Role Models: It highlights the importance of providing positive, non-aggressive role models in schools, homes, and public life, demonstrating that non-aggression can also be learned (as seen in the non-aggressive condition).