History (9489) | European option: Modern Europe, 1750–1921

Welcome to Modern Europe, 1750–1921!

Hello! This period is one of the most exciting and explosive eras in European history. We move from absolute monarchs to revolutions, from agricultural fields to massive factories, and from divided territories to unified empires. These notes cover the four major topics you need for your AS Level papers (Papers 1 and 2).

Why study this? Understanding these topics—France, Industry, Germany, and Russia—gives you the blueprints for the modern world. Every modern political and economic system has roots right here!

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1. France, 1774–1814: Revolution and Napoleon

This section explores how France went from a powerful monarchy to an unstable Republic, culminating in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Key Question 1: What were the causes and immediate outcomes of the 1789 Revolution?

A. The Ancien Régime: Problems and Policies (Louis XVI and Necker)

The Ancien Régime (Old Regime) was the political and social system in France before 1789. It was fundamentally unfair.

• Louis XVI: Well-meaning but weak, indecisive, and poor at managing the financial crisis.
• Financial Crisis: France was bankrupt, largely due to expensive wars (like the American War of Independence) and the extravagant spending of the court (Versailles).
• Jacques Necker: Louis's finance minister. He tried to reform taxes but was popular because he hid the true extent of the debt. When he tried to propose real cuts, the nobles blocked him.

B. Pressures for Change

• Social: The Three Estates system was grossly unequal.
  • First Estate (Clergy): Paid almost no tax, owned huge lands.
  • Second Estate (Nobility): Paid almost no tax, held all the power and privileges.
  • Third Estate (Everyone Else): Paid virtually all the taxes (e.g., the *Taille*, the *Gabelle*), despite having no political say. This included peasants, urban workers, and the wealthy bourgeoisie (middle class).
• Economic: Bad harvests in 1788-89 caused bread prices to skyrocket, leading to widespread famine and urban unrest.
• Political: The Enlightenment provided the intellectual tools for revolution. Philosophers like Rousseau advocated for popular sovereignty and criticized absolute monarchy.

Analogy: Imagine a three-layered cake. The top two layers are tiny and rich, eating for free. The bottom layer is huge and starves, but has to pay for the whole cake. Eventually, the bottom layer collapses the entire structure.

C. Immediate Outcomes (The Start of the Revolution)

• Storming of the Bastille (July 1789): Parisian crowds, fearful of a royal counter-attack and needing weapons, attacked the ancient prison. Symbolised the end of royal authority.
• The August Decrees: The National Assembly abolished feudalism, sweeping away centuries of noble privilege (e.g., exclusive hunting rights and tax exemptions).
• Declaration of the Rights of Man (DRM): Defined the principles of the new state—liberty, equality, fraternity, and protection of private property. (Think of it as the Revolution's mission statement.)
• March of the Women (October 1789): Women marched to Versailles over bread prices, forcing Louis XVI and the National Assembly to move to Paris, placing them under the direct control of the people.

Key Question 2: Why were French governments unstable from 1790 to 1795?

The years after 1789 were marked by extreme turmoil because the government faced threats from all sides (left, right, and abroad).

A. Revolutionary and Counter-Revolutionary Groups

• The Jacobins: Radical political club, later dominated by Robespierre. They wanted a centralized Republic.
• The Girondins: Initially moderate Republicans who clashed with the Jacobins.
• Sans-Culottes: The radical working classes in Paris (meaning "without knee-breeches"). They pushed for extreme measures and popular control.
• Royalists/Émigrés: Nobles and clergy who fled France, plotting counter-revolution from abroad.

B. Changes in Government (1790–1795)

The government rapidly shifted as different groups seized power:

1. Constitutional Monarchy (1789-92): Louis XVI technically remained King but with limited power.
2. The Legislative Assembly/National Convention (1792-95): Monarchy abolished; Republic declared.
3. The Reign of Terror (1793-94): Led by the Committee of Public Safety (CPS) and Robespierre, dictatorship was established to purge enemies of the Revolution. Ended only with Robespierre's execution.

C. Economic Problems and Foreign Threats

• Economic Issues: The Revolutionary government issued *assignats* (paper currency) which rapidly lost value, leading to massive inflation and ongoing economic distress.
• Impact of War: Foreign powers (Austria, Prussia, Britain) saw the Revolution as a threat to their own monarchies. War broke out in 1792. Fear of invasion fueled paranoia in Paris, which the Jacobins used to justify the Terror.

Key Question 3: Why was Napoleon Bonaparte able to overthrow the Directory in 1799?

After the Terror, the Directory ruled France (1795-1799). It was supposed to be moderate, but it was disastrous.

A. The Directory's Failure

• Rule and Reputation: The Directory was weak, unpopular, and openly corrupt. It relied heavily on the army to suppress internal dissent and maintain power.
• Opposition: It faced opposition from both the left (Jacobins) and the right (Royalists). They simply couldn't govern effectively or maintain public trust.

B. Napoleon’s Rise

• Military Reputation: Napoleon was a wildly successful general, especially in the Italian and Egyptian campaigns. He brought victory, wealth, and prestige to a tired nation. His name became synonymous with French military glory.
• Political Ambitions: He was not content merely being a soldier. He saw the weakness of the Directory and was strategically positioned to exploit it.
• The Coup of 1799 (Coup of Brumaire): Napoleon, alongside key politicians (like Sieyès), overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the Consulate, effectively making Napoleon the supreme leader.

Did you know? Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt wasn't just military; he took scientists and scholars who discovered the Rosetta Stone, providing the key to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Key Question 4: What were Napoleon Bonaparte's domestic aims and achievements from 1799 to 1814?

A. Political Authority and Control

• First Consul (1799): He stabilized the government, ending the chaos of the Revolution. He presented himself as the defender of Revolutionary gains while simultaneously consolidating personal power.
• Inauguration of the Empire (1804): He crowned himself Emperor, cementing his absolute rule and establishing a new dynasty.
• Means of Control: He used a vast network of police and secret agents to suppress opposition. Critically, he used propaganda—controlling newspapers, sponsoring arts, and erecting monuments—to solidify his image as a heroic, indispensable leader.

B. Nature and Impact of Reforms (The Napoleonic Settlement)

Napoleon kept the best parts of the Revolution (equality before the law) while returning to order and structure.

• Legal (Code Napoléon, 1804): The single most important achievement. It standardised French law, based on clear principles. It confirmed the abolition of feudal privilege but restricted the rights of women.
• Educational: Established *lycées* (state secondary schools) to train future bureaucrats and military officers loyal to the state.
• Financial: Created the Bank of France and established a stable currency, restoring trust in the state finances.
• Social (Concordat, 1801): Reconciled the state with the Catholic Church, acknowledging Catholicism as the religion of the majority (but not the official state religion). This ended a major source of conflict since 1789.

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2. The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850

This section examines the monumental shift in how, where, and by whom goods were produced, transforming Britain into the world’s first industrial economy.

Key Question 1: What were the causes of the Industrial Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution was not a single event, but a rapid acceleration of changes built on previous foundations.

A. Pre-Industrial Changes

• The Agricultural Revolution: New farming methods (e.g., crop rotation, Jethro Tull’s seed drill) increased food output dramatically. This meant fewer farmers were needed, freeing up a large workforce for urban factories.
• Early Mechanisation: Inventions like James Watt’s improved steam engine (used to power factories later) and John Kay’s flying shuttle and James Hargreaves’ spinning machines (like the Spinning Jenny) started the textile revolution.
• Early Transport: Developments in roads and the construction of canals significantly lowered the cost of moving heavy raw materials (like coal) across the country.

B. Development of Capitalism

• Investment: Britain had a stable banking system and high levels of available capital (money for investment).
• Trade and Commerce: Britain’s vast global trade network provided both raw materials (cotton from the Empire) and markets for finished goods.
• The Slave Trade: Profits generated by the slave trade and plantation economies provided significant capital used to fund early industrial development.

Key Question 2: Why was there a rapid growth of industrialisation after 1780?

Industrial growth exploded because innovations fed off each other, creating a cycle of expansion.

• The Factory System: The use of steam power required centralisation. Workers gathered in large factories near water or coal sources. This allowed for centralized supervision and mass production.
• Raw Materials: Britain possessed massive, easily accessible reserves of iron (for building machines and railways) and coal (the fuel source for steam power).
• Developments in Transport: After 1830, the true power of industrialization was unlocked by the railways and steam ships, making national and international distribution faster and cheaper than ever before.
• Growth of Markets and Free Trade: Expanding domestic and international markets drove demand. The push towards Free Trade (removing tariffs) meant British goods could be sold cheaply worldwide.

Key Question 3: Why, and with what consequences, did urbanisation result from industrialisation?

Factories needed workers, so people migrated rapidly from the countryside to the cities. This process is called urbanisation.

A. Growth of Towns and Living Conditions

• Housing and Health: Towns grew chaotically and quickly, leading to massive overcrowding. Poor sanitation, polluted water supplies, and lack of sewage systems caused frequent epidemics (like cholera).
• Working Conditions: Factory work was monotonous, dangerous, and poorly paid. Hours were extremely long (12-16 hours per day). Child Labour was rampant and essential to family survival, often under horrific conditions in mines or textile mills.

B. Impacts on Social Classes

• New Middle Class: Factory owners, bankers, and merchants became hugely wealthy, gaining influence while the old landed aristocracy’s power declined.
• Industrial Working Class: A vast new class of factory and mine workers emerged, dependent entirely on wages, living in precarious poverty.

C. Government Responses

The government initially followed a policy of *laissez-faire* (non-intervention) but was forced to react to the worst consequences.

• Early legislation focused on regulation and control, such as the *Factory Acts* (starting in 1833), which attempted to limit child labour and working hours.

Key Question 4: Why, and with what consequences, did industrialisation result in popular protest and political change?

A. Reactions to Economic Change and Mechanisation

• Luddites (1811–1816): Groups of textile workers who attacked machinery, believing the machines were taking their skilled jobs and driving down wages.
• Captain Swing Riots (1830s): Agricultural labourers protesting against low wages and the introduction of farm machinery (threshing machines).

Remember: These protests were not anti-technology per se, but protests against unemployment and poverty caused by new technology and poor economic conditions.

B. Demands for Political Reform (Chartists)

Workers realized that direct protest often failed; political change was needed to gain a voice.

• Chartism: The main mass movement demanding political reform in the 1830s and 1840s. They based their demands on the People's Charter, which called for six points, including universal male suffrage (voting rights).

C. Origins of Organised Labour

• Trade Unions: Workers began to organize nationally to negotiate better wages and conditions. Although often illegal or suppressed, early unions formed the basis for modern labour movements.
• Cooperative Societies: Movements, such as the Rochdale Pioneers, aimed to allow workers to collectively own shops and services to cut costs.

D. Government Reaction to Demands

• Initial reaction was often repression (e.g., the *Six Acts*), but the pressure eventually led to reform, such as the Great Reform Act of 1832 (though this mainly benefited the middle class, not the workers).

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3. Liberalism and nationalism in Germany, 1815–71

This section details how a collection of 39 German states, initially repressed by Austria, moved towards political freedom (Liberalism) and, ultimately, military unification under Prussia (Nationalism).

Key Question 1: What were the causes of the Revolutions in 1848–49?

A. Repression and Ideas

• Metternich's System: After Napoleon's defeat, the German states were organized into the weak German Confederation, dominated by Austria. Prince Metternich of Austria used harsh methods (like the *Carlsbad Decrees*) to suppress liberal and nationalist ideas.
• Liberal Ideas: The middle class, educated by the Enlightenment, desired constitutional government, freedom of the press, and legal equality.
• Nationalist Ideas: People wanted a unified, strong German state, rather than a loose collection of states ruled by foreigners (Austria).

B. Economic Factors

• The Zollverein: Prussia created a successful economic union (a customs union) that abolished tariffs between member German states. This strengthened economic cooperation and implicitly favored Prussian leadership, excluding Austria.
• Social and Economic Problems (1840s): Poor harvests and unemployment in the mid-1840s created desperate conditions, which provided the spark for the revolutions when news of the French revolution (Feb 1848) arrived.

Key Question 2: What were the consequences of the 1848–49 Revolutions?

A. Failure of Political Unification

• Frankfurt Parliament Collapse: Representatives from the states met in the Frankfurt Parliament to draft a constitution for a united Germany. However, they spent too long debating and lacked military power to enforce their decisions. The Prussian King, Frederick William IV, ultimately rejected the crown offered by the Liberals.
• Reassertion of Austrian Power: Austria crushed the rebellions in its own territories. Prussia then backed down from a confrontation with Austria, leading to the "Humiliation of Olmütz" (1850), where Prussia agreed to restore the German Confederation under Austrian dominance.

B. Post-1849 Economic Developments

• Although the political revolutions failed, the economic foundation of German unity continued to grow. Industrialisation accelerated after 1849, driven by the Zollverein and the railway boom, massively increasing Prussia's strength relative to agricultural Austria.

Key Question 3: What were Bismarck's intentions for Prussia and Germany from 1862 to 1866?

The failure of the liberals to unite Germany cleared the path for a different approach: unification via military force.

A. Bismarck's Appointment and Philosophy

• Appointment (1862): Otto von Bismarck was appointed Minister President by King William I to solve a constitutional crisis with the Prussian parliament (Landtag) over army budget reforms.
• Attitude: Bismarck was a conservative who despised liberalism. He was a master of Realpolitik (politics based on practical, pragmatic power rather than ideals or morals).
• Aims: To strengthen the Prussian army (ignoring the Landtag) and to establish Prussian dominance over Germany, explicitly excluding Austria (the Kleindeutschland solution).

B. Policies and Wars (1864, 1866)

Bismarck famously declared that German issues would be settled by "Blood and Iron."

• War with Denmark (1864): Prussia and Austria allied to seize the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. This created a new dispute between Prussia and Austria over who controlled the seized territories.
• War with Austria (1866): Bismarck maneuvered Austria into war (the Austro-Prussian War). The superior Prussian army, using railways and modern artillery, defeated Austria quickly in seven weeks.

Key Question 4: How and why was the unification of Germany achieved by 1871?

A. Outcomes of the Austro-Prussian War

• Treaty of Prague: Austria was decisively excluded from German affairs.
• North German Confederation (NGC): Prussia annexed key territories and created a new federal state north of the River Main, fully controlled by Prussia. The remaining states realized Prussia was the new power.

B. The Final Step: The Franco-Prussian War (1870–71)

• Bismarck's Diplomacy towards France: France, led by Napoleon III, was concerned about a strong unified German state. Bismarck needed a war with France to bring the remaining Southern German states (who were Catholic and wary of Protestant Prussia) into the Confederation.
• The Hohenzollern Candidature: A Spanish throne dispute involving a relative of the Prussian King provided the pretext. Bismarck manipulated a telegram (*The Ems Telegram*) to insult the French ambassador, causing France to declare war.
• Prussian Victory: The Prussian forces (supported by all German states) quickly mobilized and defeated the French decisively.
• Creation of the German Empire (1871): The Empire was officially proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles (a deliberate snub to France). William I of Prussia became Kaiser (Emperor) of the newly unified Germany.

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4. The Russian Revolution, 1894–1921

This final section covers the collapse of the Tsarist autocracy and the establishment of the world's first communist state under the Bolsheviks.

Key Question 1: What were the causes and outcomes of the 1905 Revolution up to 1914?

A. The Nature of the Tsarist Regime

• Nicholas II: A deeply conservative autocrat, believing his power was granted by God. He fiercely resisted modernization and political change.
• Pressures for Change: Russia was rapidly industrializing, creating an urban working class (proletariat) that lived in appalling conditions and was fertile ground for revolutionary ideas (Marxism). The huge peasant population was land-hungry and impoverished.

B. Key Events of the 1905 Revolution

• Causes: Humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) severely damaged the Tsar’s reputation and led to widespread discontent.
• 'Bloody Sunday' (Jan 1905): Peaceful protestors marching to present a petition to the Tsar were shot at by soldiers, shattering the traditional bond between Tsar and people.
• The October Manifesto: Forced by widespread strikes and uprisings, the Tsar promised fundamental civil rights and the creation of an elected assembly, the Duma.

C. Reassertion of Tsarist Authority (1906–1914)

• The Dumas: Nicholas II treated the Dumas with contempt, dissolving them when they disagreed with him. They had very limited real power.
• Stolypin's Reforms: Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin instituted land reforms, attempting to create a class of loyal, independent peasants (kulaks). He was also ruthless in suppressing political dissent ("Stolypin’s Necktie").
• Opposition: Despite repression, opposition groups (Social Democrats/Bolsheviks, Social Revolutionaries, Liberals) remained active, using strikes and terrorist acts.

Key Question 2: What were the causes and immediate outcomes of the February Revolution in 1917?

A. Impact of World War I

• Military Defeats: Russia suffered catastrophic losses (e.g., Tannenberg). Poor supply lines, weak leadership, and high casualties destroyed morale.
• Economic Effects: The war collapsed the Russian economy. Food shortages, hyperinflation, and frozen transport lines led to mass starvation in cities.
• Nicholas II as War Leader: Nicholas II took personal command of the army in 1915, associating the monarchy directly with every military failure. This left the German-born Tsarina Alexandra and her advisor, Rasputin, in charge in Petrograd, fueling rumours of corruption.

B. The Revolution and Abdication

• February Revolution (1917): Spontaneous riots and strikes in Petrograd (over bread shortages) spread rapidly. Crucially, the army garrison refused the Tsar's orders to fire on protestors and mutinied.
• Abdication: Without military support, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate (March 1917).
• Provisional Government: Formed by the liberals (Duma members), it intended to manage Russia until elections could be held for a Constituent Assembly.
• Dual Power: The Provisional Government shared power with the Petrograd Soviet (Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies). This division of authority made effective rule impossible.

Key Question 3: How and why did the Bolsheviks gain power in October 1917?

The Bolsheviks (the radical faction of the Social Democrats led by Lenin) benefited massively from the Provisional Government's failures.

• Crises of the Provisional Government: The PG made two fatal mistakes: they continued the war (unpopular with the soldiers and peasants) and they failed to redistribute land quickly.
• Lenin's Leadership: Lenin returned from exile in April 1917 and published the April Theses, calling for "Peace, Land, and Bread" and "All Power to the Soviets." These simple slogans appealed directly to the masses.
• Role of Trotsky and the MRC: Leon Trotsky was a brilliant organizer. As head of the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) of the Petrograd Soviet, he effectively mobilized Bolshevik armed forces (the Red Guards) and planned the takeover.
• October Revolution: The takeover was swift and relatively bloodless in Petrograd, seizing key infrastructure (bridges, telegraph offices) and finally the Winter Palace. The Bolsheviks proclaimed the Soviet government.

Key Question 4: How were the Bolsheviks able to consolidate their power up to 1921?

A. Establishing the Dictatorship (1917–1918)

• Bolshevik Reforms: Issued swift decrees on peace, land, and nationalization of banks.
• Dictatorship: When the Bolsheviks failed to win the majority in the Constituent Assembly elections, Lenin dissolved it by force, establishing the rule of the party. He created the Cheka (secret police) to eliminate opposition.
• Impact of Brest-Litovsk (1918): Lenin signed a harsh peace treaty with Germany, surrendering huge amounts of land. This was unpopular but fulfilled his promise of 'Peace.'

B. The Civil War (1918–1921)

The Bolsheviks (Reds) fought a coalition of counter-revolutionaries (Whites), foreign powers, and other leftist groups.

• Reasons for Bolshevik Victory:
  • They controlled the central heartland of Russia (industry and railways).
  • Trotsky brilliantly organized the Red Army (conscription, discipline).
  • The Whites were disorganized and lacked a unified political message.
  • War Communism: This harsh economic policy involved forcible grain requisitioning from peasants and nationalization of all industry, ensuring the Red Army was supplied (though causing immense hardship).

C. Economic Crisis and the NEP

• Kronstadt Rising (1921): Sailors at the Kronstadt naval base—once firm supporters of the Bolsheviks—revolted against the starvation and repression of War Communism. This shocked Lenin.
• New Economic Policy (NEP): In response, Lenin ended War Communism and introduced the NEP. This allowed some private trade and allowed peasants to sell surplus grain for profit. It was a temporary step back from pure communist economics but successfully averted total economic collapse.