History (9489) | American option: The history of the USA, 1820–1941

🇺🇸 Comprehensive Study Notes: The History of the USA, 1820–1941

Welcome to your study notes for the American option (1820–1941)! This is one of the most exciting periods in American history, covering the painful birth of the modern nation, a devastating Civil War, massive industrial growth, and the response to the greatest economic crisis the world has ever seen.

Don't worry if this seems like a lot! We have broken down the content into four key, manageable topics, focusing only on the specific knowledge required for Papers 1 and 2 of your AS Level examination. Let's dive into the history that shaped the superpower of the 20th century!

Topic 1: The Origins of the Civil War, 1820–61

The period 1820 to 1861 is dominated by one single issue: slavery, and the failure to contain it as the USA expanded.

How was the issue of slavery addressed between 1820 and 1850?

• Sectional Balance: By 1820, the US political system relied on maintaining an equal balance in the Senate between free and slave states. This balance was critical to prevent either the North or the South from dominating federal law-making.
• Territorial Expansion: As the US grew westward (Manifest Destiny), every new territory—especially the massive absorption of Texas (1845)—forced Congress to debate whether the new lands would permit slavery.
• The Missouri Compromise (1820): This was the first major attempt at compromise.
  • What it did: Allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state and Maine to enter as a free state (maintaining balance).
  • The rule: It prohibited slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36°30’ parallel (Missouri’s southern border).
• The Compromise of 1850: Following the Mexican-American War, California applied for statehood, shattering the 1820 line. The 1850 Compromise was a set of five laws designed by Henry Clay:
  • California entered as a free state.
  • New Mexico and Utah territories would decide slavery via popular sovereignty (the people vote).
  • The slave trade was abolished in Washington D.C.
  • Texas received \( \$10 \) million to give up some land claims.
  • Crucially, the Fugitive Slave Act was strengthened.

The Widening of Sectional Divisions (1850–1856)

The Compromise of 1850 did not solve the problem; it simply delayed conflict, and the enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act made the North feel implicated in slavery.

• Fugitive Slave Act Impact: This law required federal officials and even northern citizens to assist in returning escaped slaves. This radicalized Northern abolitionists and infuriated the public, forcing them to confront the moral issue directly.
• Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): Proposed by Stephen Douglas, this Act overturned the Missouri Compromise line and applied popular sovereignty to the Kansas and Nebraska territories.
  • Consequence: It led to "Bleeding Kansas," a period of intense violence and civil disorder as pro- and anti-slavery settlers rushed in to influence the vote.
• Party-Political System Changes: The crises led to the rapid decline of the old Whig Party (who couldn't agree on slavery) and the meteoric rise of the new Republican Party, which was fundamentally opposed to the expansion of slavery.
• Significance of States' Rights: The South increasingly relied on the argument that states had the right to choose their own institutions (slavery) without federal interference.

Why did the Civil War begin in April 1861?

• Dred Scott Decision (1857): The Supreme Court ruled that African Americans were not and could never be citizens, and that Congress had no right to prohibit slavery in any territory. This effectively made the Republican goal of containing slavery illegal. The North saw this as proof of a 'slave power' conspiracy controlling the government.
• John Brown's Raid (1859): An extreme abolitionist, John Brown, raided the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, hoping to spark a slave revolt. He was captured and executed, becoming a martyr in the North and confirming Southern fears that the North sought to incite violence.
• The Election of 1860: The Democratic Party split over the issue of slavery. Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, won despite receiving no electoral votes from the South.
  • Southern Reaction: Southern states saw Lincoln's election, based purely on Northern votes, as the final nail in the coffin of their political rights and security.
• Secession and Fort Sumter: South Carolina led the secession of seven Deep South states between December 1860 and February 1861, forming the Confederate States of America (CSA). The war officially began when Confederate forces fired on the federal Fort Sumter in South Carolina in April 1861. Lincoln refused to let the Union dissolve peacefully.

Topic 2: Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–77

Why did the Civil War last four years (1861–65)?

The conflict was longer and bloodier than anyone expected, due to several key factors:

• Resources Available:
  • North (Union): Vastly superior industrial capacity, larger population (more soldiers), extensive railroad network, and control of the navy.
  • South (Confederacy): Fought a defensive war on their own terrain, highly motivated soldiers, and excellent military leadership (e.g., Robert E. Lee).
• Leadership and Strategy: Lincoln eventually found effective military leaders (Grant and Sherman) who implemented a strategy of total war (Anaconda Plan and Sherman’s March) aimed at destroying the South’s capacity and will to fight.
• Foreign Influences: The Confederacy hoped Britain and France, reliant on Southern cotton, would intervene on their behalf. However, the Union's diplomatic efforts, coupled with the Emancipation Proclamation (1863), made intervention for the sake of slavery politically impossible for European powers.

Immediate Impact of the Civil War (1861–65)

• Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Issued by Lincoln, it freed slaves only in the Confederate states (areas still in rebellion). Why was it significant? It changed the goal of the war from simply preserving the Union to fighting for freedom, cementing the moral high ground and preventing European intervention.
• Civil Liberties: Lincoln suspended habeas corpus (the right to be charged before detention) in some border states, demonstrating the limitations placed on liberties even in the North during wartime.
• Life in the Confederacy: The South suffered extreme hardship. Union blockades led to severe shortages of food and basic goods. Slaves often resisted their masters or ran away to join Union lines, significantly weakening the Confederate war effort.

The Aims and Outcomes of Reconstruction (1865–1877)

Reconstruction was the process of rebuilding the South and readmitting the former Confederate states into the Union.

A. The Two Phases of Reconstruction

Don't confuse the aims of the different phases:

1. Presidential Reconstruction (Lincoln & Johnson, 1865–67): Aims: Quick, lenient readmission of Southern states. This was seen by Congress as too soft on the rebels and offering little protection to ex-slaves.
2. Radical Reconstruction (Congressional, 1867–77): Aims: Punish the South, guarantee rights for ex-slaves (freedmen), and reshape Southern society politically.

B. Constitutional Amendments (The Outcomes)

These three amendments permanently changed the Constitution:

• 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery nationwide.
• 14th Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the US (including ex-slaves) and guaranteed equal protection under the law.
• 15th Amendment (1870): Granted voting rights to African American men.

How successful was Reconstruction?

While the amendments were historic, Reconstruction ultimately failed to achieve full equality for ex-slaves due to white Southern resistance.

• Response of the White South: White Southerners violently resisted the changes, utilizing terrorist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan to suppress black voters and prevent Republicans (black and white) from holding office.
• Changing Position of Ex-Slaves: Freedmen gained legal rights and established institutions (churches, schools), and briefly participated in politics. However, many were forced back into exploitative agricultural systems like sharecropping.
• The Compromise of 1877: This political deal ended Reconstruction. In exchange for the Democratically controlled South accepting the disputed election of Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, the federal government agreed to withdraw all remaining US troops from the South. This immediately allowed white Southern Democrats to regain full political control (the "Redeemers"), leading to decades of racial segregation (Jim Crow).

Topic 3: The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920

This period saw the USA transform from an agrarian nation into the world's leading industrial power, followed by a widespread movement to fix the social problems that growth created.

Analogy: Historian Mark Twain dubbed this the Gilded Age. Gold plating looks shiny on the outside (massive wealth), but the metal underneath is cheap (poverty, corruption, social problems).

Why was the late nineteenth century an age of rapid industrialisation?

• Growth of Trusts and Corporations: Industry was dominated by Robber Barons (e.g., Rockefeller, Carnegie, Vanderbilt) who used monopolies (trusts) to eliminate competition and accumulate vast wealth, driving efficiency and production.
• Technological Innovations: New technologies like electrical power, the telephone, and improved steel production allowed industries to grow exponentially.
• Railroad Growth: The expansion of railroads created massive national markets for goods, allowing raw materials (like coal and iron) to be moved cheaply and finished products to be sold nationwide.
• Trade Policies: Protectionism (high tariffs on foreign goods) ensured that American industry faced little outside competition, supporting domestic growth.

Consequences of Rapid Economic Growth

This growth brought immense problems:

• Urbanisation and Living Conditions: Rapid growth meant cities couldn't cope. Poor housing, sanitation, and safety issues plagued urban areas.
• Economic Recessions: Industrial booms were followed by severe busts (e.g., the Panic of 1873), leading to mass unemployment and poverty.
• New Immigration: Millions of immigrants, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe, arrived, providing cheap labour but also leading to ethnic tension and poor working conditions.
• Rise of Organised Labour: Workers fought back against low pay and unsafe conditions. This led to the growth of labor unions and agricultural movements like the Granger Movement, which fought railroad monopolies.

The Progressive Movement (Aims and Policies)

The Progressives were diverse reformers (middle-class professionals, journalists, politicians) who wanted government action to address the ills of the Gilded Age.

1. Limits on Corruption: Fighting corrupt city party machines and bosses (like Boss Tweed in New York).
2. Social Morality: Advocating Temperance and Prohibition (banning alcohol) as a means to cure social decay and poverty.
3. Democracy: Pushing for Constitutional reforms such as direct election of Senators and primary elections to weaken party bosses.
4. Regulation: Demanding the Regulation of private corporations (trust-busting) to protect consumers and small businesses.
5. Female Emancipation (Suffrage): A major goal, culminating in the 19th Amendment (1920) granting women the right to vote.

Success of the Progressive Movement

• Progressive Presidents: Presidents like Theodore Roosevelt (Trust-Buster), William Taft, and Woodrow Wilson used federal power to regulate the economy (e.g., breaking up monopolies and creating the Federal Reserve).
• State vs. Federal Successes: Many successful reforms started at the state or local level (e.g., workplace safety laws, child labour restrictions) before being adopted federally.
• Limits: Despite successes, the Progressive Movement often failed to address deep-seated racial inequality and was largely aimed at regulating, not overturning, capitalism.

Topic 4: The Great Crash, Great Depression and New Deal policies, 1920–41

The 1920s began with booming confidence, but ended in disaster, forcing a complete overhaul of the government's role in the economy.

What were the causes of the Great Crash?

• Structural Weaknesses: The US economy of the 1920s was inherently unstable:
  • Agriculture: Farmers were poor, suffering from oversupply after WWI.
  • Industry: Traditional industries (coal, textiles) were struggling while new industries (cars, electrical power) boomed, creating vast economic disparity.
• Mass Production and Oversupply: Factories produced more goods than consumers could afford to buy, leading to a glut (oversupply) of products by the late 1920s.
• Growth of Consumerism & Margin Buying: Many Americans bought consumer goods (like radios and cars) using hire purchase (credit). Crucially, many people bought stocks on the margin (using borrowed money).
  • Analogy: Buying on margin is like putting down a small deposit on a stock, hoping the price goes up so you can pay the loan back. If the price falls, you still owe the loan—and the lender demands their money immediately.
• Impact of Government Policies: Republican governments favoured laissez-faire economics (minimal intervention) and high tariffs, which failed to address structural issues or regulate the wild stock market speculation.

The Great Crash (October 1929) and the Great Depression

• Main Features of the Crash: Stock prices collapsed suddenly in October 1929 ("Black Tuesday"). Since stocks were heavily bought on margin, the crash led to mass financial ruin.
• Collapse of the Financial System: The Crash led to massive bank failures (as people rushed to withdraw their money, and banks couldn't cover the losses from failed loans). This paralyzed credit and investment.
• Impacts: The Depression caused mass unemployment (peaking at about 25%), leading to homelessness (shantytowns called Hoovervilles) and immense social hardship.
• Hoover's Response: President Herbert Hoover largely believed the economy would self-correct (laissez-faire) and feared direct federal relief, focusing instead on limited voluntary actions by businesses and small public works. His failure to take decisive action led to massive public dissatisfaction.

Roosevelt's New Deal Strategies (1933–41)

Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) won the 1932 election promising a New Deal—a series of domestic programs aimed at fighting the Depression.

The New Deal can be summarized by the Three R's: Relief, Recovery, and Reform.

• Roosevelt's First Hundred Days: Immediately upon taking office (March 1933), FDR passed major legislation, starting with bank reforms (to restore confidence) and the creation of massive relief programs (e.g., CCC, AAA).
• Development of New Deal Policies:
  • The First New Deal (1933–34): Focused mainly on immediate relief and short-term recovery.
  • The Second New Deal (1935–38): Focused on long-term Reform, fundamentally changing the relationship between the citizen and the government. Key elements include the Social Security Act (pensions and unemployment insurance) and the Wagner Act (protecting labor unions).
• The New Deal Coalition: FDR successfully united a diverse group of voters—Southern whites, Northern African Americans, urban immigrants, and industrial workers—into a powerful political force that dominated politics for decades.
• The Roosevelt Recession (1937–38): When FDR cut back on government spending in 1937 (hoping the economy was fixed), the economy immediately dipped back into recession, proving that recovery was still reliant on federal spending.

Opposition to the New Deal

FDR's unprecedented use of federal power led to heavy opposition from both sides:

• Opposition from the Liberal Left: Figures like Huey Long (Louisiana Senator) argued that the New Deal did not go far enough and should radically redistribute wealth.
• Opposition from the Conservative Right: Big business leaders and conservatives argued that the New Deal was socialist, wasteful, and granted the federal government too much power (trampling on liberty).
• Opposition from the Supreme Court: The conservative Court struck down several key early New Deal acts (like the AAA and NIRA) claiming they exceeded federal constitutional authority.
• Roosevelt’s Responses: FDR attempted to 'pack' the Supreme Court (add six new liberal judges) after his 1936 victory, but this was highly controversial and failed. However, the existing judges soon began to uphold New Deal legislation.