English Language (9093) | Theories and theorists of language change

Study Notes for Paper 3, Section A: Theories and Theorists of Language Change

Welcome to one of the most interesting parts of the A Level syllabus! In Paper 3, Section A, you need to be able to analyze historical language data (like old texts or graphs) and explain *why* those changes happened. This chapter focuses on the big ideas—the theories—that help us answer the question: "What causes language to change?"

Don't worry if these terms seem complex. We will break them down using simple examples relevant to how you speak English today. Remember, mastering these theories is crucial for achieving high marks on Assessment Objectives 4 (AO4: Concepts) and 5 (AO5: Synthesis) in the exam.

1. Understanding Why Theories Matter

A theory of language change is a framework used by linguists to explain the mechanism (how and why) a language feature (like a new word or a different pronunciation) is introduced and spreads throughout a speech community.

Key Distinction: Process vs. Theory

You already know the *processes* of change (like amelioration, narrowing, or inflection loss). The *theories* explain the underlying *cause* for these processes occurring in the first place.

• Process: Bede (Old English) changing to Bead (Contemporary English).
• Theory: Why did one speaker suddenly use the new pronunciation? (Perhaps Random Fluctuation Theory).

2. Theories Focusing on Cause and Error

These theories suggest that change often starts small, sometimes by accident, or due to general human nature.

2.1 Random Fluctuation Theory

Theorist: Charles Hockett (though the general concept existed earlier).

Core Idea: Language change is not always planned or logical; sometimes, it happens randomly due to minor errors, misunderstandings, or sheer fashion.

How it works:

1. A speaker makes an accidental mistake (a slip of the tongue or mishearing).
2. If this mistake occurs frequently, or if the speaker is socially prestigious, the variation gets copied.
3. The new, 'incorrect' form becomes conventionalized.

Example: Think about the word pioneer. If one influential user consistently pronounced it as "pinoneer" (a completely random phonetic shift), and others started copying it because it was seen as trendy, that would be random fluctuation.

Memory Tip: Random Fluctuation = Really Frivolous (or accidental) changes.

2.2 Cultural Transmission Theory

Core Idea: Language change occurs across generations because children do not acquire the language perfectly from their parents. They systematically reformulate linguistic features.

How it works (The Innovation Process):

• Each new generation of language users acts as the "transmitter" of the language.
• Minor innovations (changes) or simplifications are introduced by children, who are still learning the complex rules of morphology and syntax.
• If enough children adopt the innovation, it becomes established.

Did you know? This theory explains why complex grammatical systems (like Old English inflections) tend to erode over time—children prefer simpler, analytical constructions (using prepositions and word order) rather than memorizing complex inflectional endings.

3. Theories Focusing on Need and Utility (Function)

These theories argue that change is driven by the practical demands of communication.

3.1 Functional Theory

Core Idea: Language changes to suit the needs of its users. If a language feature is frequently used and necessary for communication, it tends to be preserved. If it is redundant or no longer useful, it will be lost or simplified.

Example (Simplification): The loss of the 'thorn' character (þ) and the 'eth' character (ð) in English orthography. These letters represented the /th/ sound. Since the letters 'th' were sufficient and easier to type/write over time, the redundant characters were phased out. The function was simplified.

Example (Need): The sudden explosion of technical lexis related to computers in the 1990s and 2000s (e.g., download, interface, tweet). These words filled a communication necessity that didn't exist before.

3.2 Theory of Lexical Gaps

Core Idea: New words are created to fill a "gap" in the existing lexis (vocabulary), especially when a new concept needs a single, convenient label.

How it works: Imagine a new cultural object or activity. If describing it requires a long phrase, the language will naturally favour creating a new word (often through processes like compounding or blending) for efficiency.

Example: Before 'podcast' existed, you would have had to say, "a digital audio file distributed over the internet using RSS feeds for playback on portable media players." The gap was filled by blending 'iPod' and 'broadcast'.

4. Theories Focusing on External Contact

Change often happens when different language groups interact, particularly when there is a power imbalance.

4.1 Substratum Theory

Core Idea: When two languages come into contact, the language of the politically, economically, or culturally *less dominant group* (the substratum) influences the language of the *more dominant group* (the superstratum), particularly when the dominant group learns the language imperfectly.

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first. Think of it like a layer cake. The dominant language is the top layer, but the bottom, earlier layer (the substratum) bleeds its flavour upwards.

Example: When the Vikings settled in England (starting 8th century), they spoke Old Norse. English (the dominant language in the long run) was heavily influenced by Old Norse speakers who simplified English grammar and contributed thousands of common words (e.g., sky, skirt, they, them). The substratum (Norse) left permanent marks on the superstratum (English).

Real-World Analogy: Imagine someone moving from a region with a very fast speech rhythm to a region with a slow rhythm. Their natural tendency might be to clip their words or maintain an accent. If they become influential, their clipped words might catch on.

5. Models of Language Change (The Spread)

These models don't explain *why* change happens, but they explain *how* the change spreads geographically and socially once it has started.

5.1 The Tree Model (The Divergence Model)

Theorist: August Schleicher

Core Idea: Language change is represented as the branching of a family tree. It suggests that languages or dialects split suddenly and cleanly from a common ancestor, leading to distinct, separate branches that no longer interact.

Characteristics:

• Implies sudden, clean breaks (like species evolving).
• Suggests that if two groups split (e.g., American English vs. British English), they will simply continue to diverge without cross-influence.
• Excellent for explaining the initial separation of large language families (e.g., Latin splitting into French, Spanish, Italian).

Limitation: This model struggles to explain overlap and borrowing, which are very common in real language evolution.

5.2 The Wave Model (The Contagion Model)

Theorist: Johannes Schmidt

Core Idea: Change spreads gradually and continuously from a central point (an innovation centre), like ripples in a pond after a stone is dropped. The change gets weaker the further away it gets.

Characteristics:

• Explains the existence of dialect boundaries (isoglosses) and overlapping features.
• Allows for multiple changes to spread simultaneously from different centres, intersecting with one another.
• Excellent for explaining how phonological changes (accents) or single lexical items spread across a geographic region.

Example: A new slang word invented in London might spread quickly to Manchester and slowly across to smaller towns in Scotland, losing its force the further it travels. If a new pronunciation then starts in Glasgow, those two "waves" will overlap.

Key Takeaway

The English language changes due to a constant battle between internal pressure (mistakes, simplification, efficiency—Random Fluctuation and Functional Theory) and external pressure (contact with other languages—Substratum Theory). The Tree and Wave Models then explain the patterns in which these changes are adopted.