Welcome to Child Language Acquisition (CLA)!

Hello there! This chapter is super important for Paper 3, Section B, where you'll analyse real-life transcripts of children speaking. Don't worry if it seems overwhelming—we’re going to break down how babies magically transform into fluent speakers, and look at the famous arguments about whether language is born or learned.

Understanding these theories and stages is essential because you must use them to contextualise your analysis of the transcript data in the exam (AO4 and AO5).

Section 1: The Main Stages of Early Language Development (0–8 Years)

Children don't start speaking in perfect sentences. Their language ability develops in predictable stages, moving from simple sounds to complex grammar.

1. The Pre-Verbal Stage (0–12 months)

This stage is all about sounds, not words.

  • Cooing (0–6 months): Soft vowel sounds (e.g., /u/, /a/). This is often a sign of contentment and helps them practice vocal control.
  • Babbling (6–12 months): This involves mixing consonants and vowels to create repeated sounds, like 'ma-ma-ma' or 'da-da-da'.
  • Did You Know? Early babbling is often universal—babies from different countries make similar sounds. Later babbling (around 9 months) becomes phonemic selection, where they drop sounds not used in their native language.

2. The Holophrastic Stage (Around 12–18 months)

This is where the first recognisable words appear.

  • Holophrase: A single word used to express an entire, complex idea.
  • Example: A child saying "Juice!" could mean "I want juice," "That is juice," or "The juice is gone." You need the context (the situation) to understand the meaning.

3. The Telegraphic Stage (Around 24–36 months)

The language starts to resemble short sentences, but key parts are missing—just like an old-fashioned telegram that charged per word!

  • Features: Children use only content words (nouns, verbs, main adjectives) and omit function words (prepositions, auxiliary verbs, articles, like 'the' or 'is').
  • Example: "Daddy kick ball" instead of "Daddy is kicking the ball."
  • Common Mistake: Don't confuse 'telegraphic' with 'holophrastic'. Telegraphic uses multiple words; holophrastic uses one word.

4. The Post-Telegraphic Stage (36 months onwards)

Language becomes much more complex and grammatically accurate.

  • Children start to incorporate function words and understand sentence structure (syntax).
  • They begin to use passive voice, embedded clauses, and complex tenses.
  • This stage includes a lot of virtuous errors, such as overgeneralisation of grammatical rules (e.g., saying "runned" instead of "ran" because they know the rule for past tense is often adding '-ed'). This error is evidence against simple imitation!

Key Takeaway: Language develops sequentially. Look for the length of utterances and the inclusion/omission of function words to identify the stage.

Section 2: Theories and Theorists of Acquisition (The 'How')

There are three main ways academics try to explain how children acquire language. They often fall into a debate between 'Nature' (we are born ready) and 'Nurture' (we learn it from the environment).

1. The Nurture Theory: Imitation and Reinforcement (B.F. Skinner)

This is known as the Behaviourist approach.

  • Theorist: B.F. Skinner
  • Core Idea: Children learn language by imitating the sounds and structures they hear. This behaviour is then encouraged (reinforced) by caregivers.
  • Reinforcement: If a child says "Milk," and the parent gives them milk and says "Yes, milk!" the child is positively reinforced. If they make a mistake, they might be corrected (negative reinforcement).
  • Critique: This theory doesn't account for the speed of acquisition or virtuous errors (like "I runned"). A child cannot imitate a word they have never heard.

2. The Nature Theory: Innatism (Noam Chomsky)

This theory suggests language ability is hard-wired into the human brain.

  • Theorist: Noam Chomsky
  • Core Idea: Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language, sometimes called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This device contains Universal Grammar (UG)—the basic structural rules common to all human languages.
  • The 'Poverty of the Stimulus': Chomsky argued that the language children hear (the input) is often messy and incomplete, yet they still quickly develop complex grammar. Therefore, they must have internal, innate rules to filter and process the input.
  • Analogy: Think of the LAD as the hardware (the brain circuitry) that's ready to run the language software.

3. The Interactionist/Social Theories (Bruner and Piaget)

Most modern linguists agree that both Nature and Nurture are required.

Jerome Bruner (Social Interactionist)
  • Theorist: Jerome Bruner
  • Core Idea: While the LAD might exist, children also need social interaction. He proposed the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS).
  • LASS: This refers to the systems and structures provided by the child's environment (the caregivers). The LASS interacts with the LAD to facilitate language learning.
  • CDS: Bruner heavily emphasized the role of Child-Directed Speech (CDS)—the specific way adults talk to children—in providing necessary support and structure.
Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development Theory)
  • Theorist: Jean Piaget
  • Core Idea: Language is acquired after a child understands the underlying concepts. Cognitive development (mental understanding) drives linguistic development.
  • Example: A child must understand the concept of 'past' before they can correctly use past tense verbs. They must understand 'object permanence' (that things still exist when they can’t see them) before they can meaningfully use the word 'gone'.

Quick Review Box: Theories

Skinner: Nurture (Imitation/Reinforcement)
Chomsky: Nature (LAD/Universal Grammar)
Bruner: Interaction (LASS/CDS)
Piaget: Cognitive (Understanding drives language)

Section 3: The Role of the Caregiver (CDS)

Caregivers play a crucial role, often simplifying their speech to help the child understand and participate. This simplified language register is known as Child-Directed Speech (CDS) or Caretaker Speech.

Key Features of CDS:

  • Phonological Features: Slower tempo, higher pitch (to attract attention), clear articulation, and exaggerated intonation.
  • Lexical Features: Simplified vocabulary, repetition of key words, and use of diminutives (e.g., adding '-y' or '-ie' like "doggy," "blankie").
  • Grammatical Features: Shorter, less complex sentences; use of questions and imperatives; frequent use of expansion (recasting the child's incomplete utterance into a complete sentence, e.g., Child: "Dog bark" -> Adult: "Yes, the dog is barking").
  • Interactional Features: Using the child's name frequently; speaking at a lower volume (°word°); frequent pausing (1).

Encouraging Phrase: When analyzing a transcript, always identify specific examples of CDS. It shows you understand the Nurture/Interactionist perspective!

Section 4: Functions of Children's Language (Halliday)

Michael Halliday classified the seven functions or reasons why a child uses language during the early stages of development (0–5 years).

Memory Aid: To remember all seven, think of the acronym I R I P R H I.

  1. Instrumental: Used to fulfil a need (e.g., getting food, toys). "Want drink."
  2. Regulatory: Used to influence or control the behaviour of others. "Go away."
  3. Interactional: Used to develop relationships and social contact. "Hello, Mummy."
  4. Personal: Used to express feelings, opinions, or a sense of identity. "I happy."
  5. Representational (Informative): Used to convey facts and information. "The car is blue."
  6. Heuristic: Used to explore the environment and learn (e.g., asking questions). "What that?" or "Why sun shine?"
  7. Imaginative: Used to create an imaginary world, play-act, or tell stories. "I am the king and you are the dragon."

Key Takeaway: Halliday shows that children use language not just for naming things, but as a tool to manage and explore their world.

Section 5: Analysing Language Data: Transcript Conventions

For Paper 3, you must be able to read and interpret a transcript of spoken language. The syllabus requires knowledge of specific notation features. These features are vital for capturing the paralinguistic (non-verbal) and prosodic (sound/rhythm) elements of speech.

Essential Transcript Notation:

  • Pauses: Pauses in seconds (1) or a very short pause (.). Significance: Shows processing time or breath intake. Longer pauses might indicate a struggle for vocabulary (lexis) or grammatical structure (syntax).
  • Overlaps: Indicated by //. Significance: Common in fast-paced conversation, but if a child is overlapped, it might show a caregiver's controlling regulatory function.
  • Stress/Emphasis: underlined word/syllable. Significance: Shows the speaker is emphasizing a word, perhaps for correction or clarification.
  • Volume: Increased volume (UPPER CASE) or decreased volume (°word°). Significance: Reflects emotion (e.g., excitement or shyness).
  • Intonation: Upward (^) or downward (\/). Significance: Upward intonation often marks a question; downward marks a statement.
  • Non-Verbal/Context: Paralinguistic features [italics] (e.g., [laughs], [sighs]) or Contextual information (e.g., ). Significance: Helps link language use to physical actions or emotional states.
  • Phonemic Representation: Indicated by forward slashes /wiv/. Significance: This is crucial for observing the child's development in phonology (pronunciation), showing common substitutions (e.g., /t/ for /s/ or /w/ for /r/).

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first—practice reading transcripts! The key is to notice *where* these notations appear and link them to the CLA theory (e.g., a long pause (2) before a complex sentence supports Piaget's idea that cognitive planning precedes utterance).

Final Key Takeaway for Paper 3

When answering a CLA question, remember the four pillars:
1. Identify the Stage (e.g., Holophrastic, Telegraphic).
2. Analyse the specific Linguistic Features (e.g., syntax, lexis, phonology).
3. Link the findings to a Theory (e.g., Chomsky, Bruner).
4. Consider the Function (e.g., Instrumental, Heuristic).