Welcome to Paper 4, Section A: English in the World!

Hi there! This chapter is all about understanding how English, a language that started in a small corner of Europe, grew into the enormous, diverse, and complicated global phenomenon it is today. You are essentially studying the language as a historical force.


Why is this important? Paper 4 requires you to write a discursive essay, relating unseen text material to your wider knowledge. Understanding the history, theories, and ethics of global English provides you with the crucial evidence (AO4) you need to score highly.

1. The Historical Development of English as a 'Global' Language

English didn't become global overnight. It happened in two major waves, driven mostly by political and economic power.

The First Wave: Colonialism and Settlement (17th - 19th Century)

This phase was dominated by the British Empire. Wherever the British established colonies, they brought their language, institutions, and administration.

  • Early Expansion: Settlements in North America (Jamestown, 1607) and Australia/New Zealand (18th Century). English became the primary language of governance, displacing or dominating local indigenous languages.
  • The Rule of Trade: In places like India, English was established as the language of administration and higher education, creating an educated elite who were fluent.

The Second Wave: Economic and Cultural Influence (20th Century Onwards)

After World War II, the baton of global influence passed largely to the United States. This phase is characterized less by military conquest and more by economic and technological dominance.

  • Economic Power: English became the primary language of global business, finance, and trade.
  • Technological Power: The rise of the internet, computing, and technology—mostly developed in the US—cemented English's technical lexicon worldwide.
  • Cultural Power: Hollywood, pop music, and television ensured the widespread understanding and often imitation of American English, demonstrating its cultural influence and effects.

Quick Review: English travelled first via ships and colonial rule, and then via silicon chips and cinema screens.

2. Theorising Global English: Kachru’s Concentric Circles Model

Don't worry if this looks like complicated academic jargon—it's actually a very helpful way to map the different roles English plays globally.

The linguist Braj Kachru (often referred to simply as 'Kachru') proposed the Concentric Circles Model in 1985 to categorise the global spread of English.

The Analogy: A Target or Bullseye

Imagine a target. The closer you are to the centre, the older and more traditional the English spoken is.

a) The Inner Circle (IC) - Norm-Providing

These are the countries where English is the primary, official, first language (L1), and where the language originated.

  • Examples: The United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
  • Role: They set the standard and provide the "norms" (rules of grammar, spelling, pronunciation).
  • Did you know? These speakers make up about 3-400 million people, but they no longer hold the majority of English speakers worldwide!
b) The Outer Circle (OC) - Norm-Developing

These countries learned English primarily due to colonialism. English has an official or historical institutional role (e.g., in government, law, education) but is often a second language (L2) alongside many local languages (multilingualism).

  • Examples: India, Singapore, Nigeria, Kenya.
  • Role: They are constantly adapting, mixing, and developing their own local standard forms—often called 'Englishes' (plural).
c) The Expanding Circle (EC) - Norm-Dependent

These countries have no colonial history with English and English plays no institutional role. It is learned primarily as a Foreign Language (EFL) for economic access, science, and tourism.

  • Examples: China, Japan, Russia, Brazil, most of Europe.
  • Role: They depend on the norms set by the Inner Circle (usually American or British English).

Key Takeaway: Kachru's model shows that English is no longer owned by native speakers; the Outer and Expanding Circles demonstrate massive growth and innovation, shaping the future of English.

3. Defining ‘Englishes’ and Language Change

Standard and Nonstandard ‘Englishes’

When English spreads, it changes. We need to recognise the difference between the traditional, prestige forms and the new local forms.

  • Standard English: The universally accepted variety used in formal writing, broadcasting, and education (though even this varies slightly between the UK and the US).
  • Nonstandard ‘Englishes’: Local varieties that have adapted English to fit their specific contexts (e.g., Singapore English, Nigerian English). These often reflect unique cultural or linguistic mixtures.

Creolisation and Pidgins

When two language groups need to communicate quickly but don't share a common tongue, they sometimes develop a simplified contact language called a Pidgin.

If children start learning that Pidgin as their first language (L1), the language expands its vocabulary and grammar, becoming more complex. This process is called Creolisation, resulting in a Creole language.

Example: Jamaican Patois, or many Caribbean and West African Englishes, originated through this process.

The Sociolect Continuum

In many Outer Circle countries, speakers don't just speak "English" or "Creole"; they move along a spectrum based on formality:

  • Acrolect: Closest to the global standard (used in formal education or business).
  • Mesolect: The middle ground; a vernacular variety, commonly understood by many L2 speakers.
  • Basilect: Closest to the nonstandard, often creole form, typically used in casual, informal settings.

Understanding this sociolect continuum shows that competence in English is not a simple 'yes' or 'no'—it's flexible and context-dependent.

Official and Unofficial Attitudes and Policies

Attitudes towards different Englishes are important:

  • Official Policies: A government might designate Standard English as the language of instruction in schools to promote global competitiveness (equality of opportunity).
  • Unofficial Attitudes: Local people might hold higher prestige for the Basilect in social or family contexts, viewing the Acrolect as 'snobbish' or foreign.

Memory Aid (Sociolect Continuum): Think of it like a sound system—Acrobat (high up/standard), Mesozoic (middle), Basic (base/local vernacular).

4. The Ethical Debate: Weighing the Costs of a Global Language

The ubiquity of English brings immense benefits, but also raises serious ethical questions that you must be prepared to discuss in your essay.

The Negative Side

The dominance of English is often seen as negative by those concerned with preserving local identities.

1. Cultural Imperialism

This is the theory that the spread of English carries Western (especially US) culture, values, and power structures, leading to the erosion of local traditions.

  • Analogy: If all global science textbooks are in English, scientists who only speak local languages are disadvantaged, and local knowledge systems might be devalued.

2. Language Shift and Death

When English becomes essential for professional success, families may stop teaching their children their indigenous language (language shift). Over generations, this can lead to language death, a catastrophic loss of cultural knowledge and history.

The Positive Side

English is also viewed as a crucial tool for global integration and economic success.

1. Global Cooperation and Access

English provides a common platform necessary for international diplomacy, scientific research, and immediate communication during crises. It enables effective global cooperation.

2. Equality of Opportunity

For individuals in the Expanding Circle, learning English is often the single most important factor for improving their economic standing, accessing global markets, and gaining international qualifications. It levels the playing field in competitive fields like technology and academia.

Key Takeaway: When discussing the ethics, always present a balanced view. English is both a tool of domination (cultural imperialism) and a means of liberation (equality of opportunity).

📝 Study Checklist & Paper 4 Focus

For your exam, you need to use these concepts to analyse an unseen text and formulate a coherent argument.

The Must-Know Vocabulary:

  • Colonialism: The root cause of the Inner and Outer Circles.
  • Kachru’s Model: Inner, Outer, Expanding Circles. Know their norms (Providing, Developing, Dependent).
  • Creolisation: The process of an L1 expanding a pidgin.
  • Multilingualism: The natural context of English use in the Outer Circle.
  • Cultural Imperialism: The main ethical objection to global English.
  • Equality of Opportunity: The main ethical justification for global English.

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! Practice relating examples (like Indian bureaucracy or Hollywood films) back to the theoretical concepts (like Outer Circle status or Cultural Influence). This is the key skill for Paper 4 (AO4).