A Level English Language (9093) Paper 3: Language Change

The Evolution of English: Early Modern to Contemporary (c. 1500 – Present Day)

Hello and welcome! This chapter is the foundation for Section A of your Paper 3 exam. Understanding how English has changed over the last 500 years allows you to analyze historical texts, interpret language data, and demonstrate your command of linguistic concepts (AO4 and AO5).

Don't worry if historical terminology seems complex! We're going to break down the timeline into three manageable phases and give you the specific vocabulary you need to succeed in your analysis.

Section 1: The Chronology of Modern English Development

We typically divide the development of English since 1500 into three main periods. When analyzing texts in Paper 3, identifying the approximate period helps you anticipate and explain the language features you find.

1. Early Modern English (EME) (c. 1500 – c. 1800)

This is the era of Shakespeare, the King James Bible (1611), and the first significant attempts to 'fix' the language.

Key Developments of EME:
  • Standardization: The invention of the printing press (1476) and the rise of London's dialect helped standardize spelling and grammar. Before this, spelling was highly inconsistent.
  • Graphology and Orthography: Spelling begins to settle down, but some practices are retained:
    • The ‘long s’ (ſ) looks like an ‘f’ but is used inside words (e.g., succeſs).
    • The use of the letter ‘e’ at the end of words (e.g., tokè).
    • Capitalization of nouns (especially important nouns, like Truth or Honor).
  • Syntax (Grammar): Sentences start becoming more regular, but older forms persist.
    • The use of 'thou' (informal singular) and 'ye'/'you' (formal or plural) gradually transitions, until only 'you' is used for everything.
    • Auxiliary verbs are less common; simple verbs are preferred (e.g., 'Doth he speak?' becomes 'Does he speak?').
  • Lexis (Vocabulary): Massive borrowing from Latin and Greek as the Renaissance introduced new knowledge and ideas.

Quick Tip: If a text looks old, has lots of seemingly random capital letters, and uses 'thou'/'hast', it’s likely EME.

2. Late Modern English (LME) (c. 1800 – c. 1950)

This period is marked by two major forces: the Industrial Revolution and the massive global expansion of the British Empire.

Key Developments of LME:
  • Lexical Explosion: New technology (trains, electricity, factories) required thousands of new words (neologisms). These were often created through compounding (railroad, steamboat) or derivation (adding prefixes/suffixes, e.g., electric-ity).
  • Prescriptivism: This era saw the rise of grammar "rules" enforced by educators and lexicographers (like Samuel Johnson). People became very concerned with "correct" English, often resulting in complex, formal syntax in writing.
  • Globalisation: English started absorbing words from colonized territories and trade partners globally (e.g., bungalow from Hindi, taboo from Tongan). This marked the start of English becoming a global language.

3. Contemporary English (CE) (c. 1950 – Present Day)

Contemporary English is characterized by rapid change, driven mainly by technology and increased social mobility/informalization.

Key Developments of CE:
  • Informalisation: Written language often mimics spoken language (e.g., in email, texts, and blogs). This blurs the line between formal and informal registers.
  • Technological Lexis: Constant introduction of new words via acronyms (RAM, USB), blending (blog, vlog), and conversion (using a noun as a verb, like to google).
  • Phonological and Orthographic Change: Text-speak introduces non-standard spellings (thru, gr8) and simplifies graphology.
  • American Influence: Due to media dominance, American English vocabulary and spelling (color vs. colour) significantly influence British English.
  • Democratization of Language: Standard English (the prestige form) is still used, but non-standard varieties (dialects and sociolects) are increasingly visible and accepted, especially online.

Key Takeaway for Chronology: EME = Standardization/Shakespeare. LME = Industrial/Prescriptivism/Global expansion. CE = Technology/Informalization.

Section 2: Essential Features and Mechanisms of Change

When you analyze a text, you need to use the right terminology to describe *how* the language has changed. These features apply across the chronological periods.

The Levels of Linguistic Change (Paper 3 Analytical Framework)

We analyze change based on the different components of language:

  • Lexis: The vocabulary (words) of the language.
  • Semantics: The meanings of the words.
  • Morphology / Inflection: How words are formed and changed (e.g., tense endings, plural forms).
  • Syntax / Grammar: The ordering of words in a sentence.
  • Orthography / Graphology: Spelling, punctuation, and appearance on the page.
  • Phonology: The sound system (how words are pronounced).
  • Pragmatics: How context influences meaning (e.g., changes in politeness markers).

Example: In EME texts, the Morphological change is visible when we look at the use of the inflectional suffix -eth (e.g., goeth, sayeth), which has since been replaced by -s (goes, says).

Mechanisms of Lexical and Semantic Change

This section is vital for analyzing the *word tables* and *n-gram graphs* provided in Paper 3. You must be able to name and explain these processes.

A. Semantic Change (Meaning Shifts)

This describes how the meaning of an existing word develops over time.

  1. Amelioration: A word acquires a more positive or elevated meaning over time.
    Example: 'Pretty' used to mean sly or crafty; now it means attractive.
  2. Pejoration: A word acquires a more negative or derogatory meaning over time.
    Example: 'Mistress' used to mean any female head of a household; now it usually refers to a sexual partner outside marriage.
  3. Broadening (Generalization): The meaning of a word becomes wider, covering more concepts.
    Example: 'Holiday' used to only refer to a holy day; now it means any period of time off work or a trip.
  4. Narrowing (Specialization): The meaning of a word becomes more specific.
    Example: 'Meat' used to mean food in general; now it refers specifically to animal flesh consumed as food.

Memory Aid: Amelioration is like an A+. Pejoration is like Poor meaning. Broadening makes the meaning Big. Narrowing makes the meaning Niche.

B. Lexical Change (Word Creation/Formation)

This describes how new words enter the language or how existing words are modified.

  1. Borrowing (or Loan Words): Taking words from other languages.
    Example: 'Jungle' (from Hindi), 'Ballet' (from French).
  2. Compounding: Combining two or more free morphemes (words) to create a new word.
    Example: 'Blackbird', 'Laptop', 'Sunscreen'.
  3. Derivation: Adding a prefix or suffix (bound morphemes) to an existing root word.
    Example: 'Un-happy', 'Modern-ize'.
  4. Conversion (or Functional Shift): Changing the word class without changing the form.
    Example: The noun 'text' converted to the verb 'to text'.
  5. Blending: Combining parts of two words (portmanteau).
    Example: 'Smog' (smoke + fog), 'Brexit' (Britain + Exit).
  6. Acronym: Words formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a single word.
    Example: 'NASA', 'Scuba'.
  7. Initialism: Words formed from initial letters but pronounced letter by letter.
    Example: 'BBC', 'USA'.
  8. Backformation: Creating a new word by removing a perceived affix from an existing word.
    Example: The verb 'to edit' was created by removing the -or from the existing word 'editor'.
C. Structural and Sound Changes (Morphology/Phonology)
  1. Inflection: Changes to words (often suffixes) that indicate grammar (tense, plural, case).
    Example: Loss of the EME second-person singular inflection (e.g., goest, doth) for the simple modern form (go, does).
  2. Telescoping (Elision): The omission of sounds or syllables in a word, usually in pronunciation, which sometimes affects spelling. This often results in a shorter word or contracted form.
    Example: Pronouncing 'family' as *'famly'* or 'library' as *'libry'*.
  3. Coalescence: The merging of two separate phonemes (sounds) into one, or two elements coming together. In morphology, this relates closely to blending or contraction.
    Example: The merging of 'I will' into 'I'll' (contraction).
  4. Etymology: The study of the historical origins of a word. When analyzing a word, referencing its etymology shows deep linguistic understanding.

COMMON MISTAKE TO AVOID in Paper 3:

Students often confuse Acronyms (like NASA) and Initialisms (like BBC). Make sure you know the difference—it demonstrates precision when analyzing modern texts and data!


Section 3: Understanding Language Data in Paper 3

In Paper 3, you must synthesize your analysis of the prose text with two sources of quantitative data: n-gram graphs and corpus word tables. These tools track changes in Lexis and Grammar over time.

1. N-Gram Graphs

An n-gram is a sequence of *n* items (usually words or phrases) from a text. Google Ngram Viewer uses millions of books to show how frequently a word or phrase has been used across different years.

How to Analyze N-Gram Graphs:
  • Frequency Change: Look for sharp rises or declines. A sharp rise often correlates with a new social, technological, or political event (e.g., rise in use of 'telepathy' after 1880).
  • Comparison: Analyze why one term (e.g., 'wireless') declined as another (e.g., 'radio') increased. This demonstrates lexical replacement.
  • Chronology Check: Does the peak usage align with the period you expect? For example, if a graph shows a word peaking around 1750, it is a key feature of LME usage.

2. Corpus Word Tables (Collocate and Synonym Lists)

A corpus is a large collection of digitized texts used for linguistic analysis. A word table derived from corpus data shows details about a specific word's usage.

Key Data Types to Look For:
  • Collocates: Words that frequently appear together. Analyzing collocate lists shows semantic change.
    Example: If a historical corpus shows 'gay' collocating frequently with 'happy' or 'light-hearted', and a modern corpus shows it collocating with 'rights' or 'community', this proves narrowing and pejoration/amelioration.
  • Synonym Lists: Shows the range of words used to express a similar idea in a specific time period. Changes here can indicate shifts in formality or pragmatic attitudes.
  • Inflectional Comparisons: Comparing how often different morphological forms are used (e.g., the frequency of ‘burnt’ vs. ‘burned’) shows morphological change over time.

Key Takeaway for Data Analysis: Your analysis must synthesize the historical text and the quantitative data. Use the specific terminology (broadening, compounding, etc.) to explain the patterns you observe in the graphs and tables.