👋 Welcome to Paper 3: Concepts and Terminology of Language Change!

Hey future linguists! This chapter is essential for Paper 3, Section A, where you analyze how English has evolved over time. Don't worry if these terms look intimidating; they are simply labels for things you already see happening every day.

Understanding these concepts—especially the difference between how words are *formed* and how their *meaning shifts*—will help you dissect historical texts and quantitative data (like n-gram graphs!) in the exam. Let's make complex change simple!

Section 1: How Words Change Their Form (Lexical and Morphological Processes)

This section focuses on the methods by which English either creates new words or alters existing words structurally. This is often called neologism (the creation of new words).

1. Building Words: Derivation and Inflection

Derivation

What it is: Adding prefixes (starts) or suffixes (ends) to a base word (a morpheme) to create a *new word* with a potentially different word class (part of speech).

  • Example: Adding the suffix '-ness' to the adjective happy creates the noun happiness.
  • Example: Adding the prefix 'un-' to the word do creates the opposite verb undo.
Inflection

What it is: Adding suffixes to a word to fulfill a grammatical function. It changes the tense, number, degree, or possession, but does not change the word class.

  • Example (Plural): Cat becomes cats. (Still a noun.)
  • Example (Past Tense): Walk becomes walked. (Still a verb.)

💡 Memory Aid: Inflection is all about Information (grammar). Derivation is about making a Different word.

2. Creating New Lexical Items

Compounding

What it is: Combining two or more existing words (or free morphemes) to form a single new word.

  • Example: Sun + flower = sunflower.
  • Example: Key + board = keyboard.
Conversion (or Zero Derivation)

What it is: Shifting a word from one word class to another without changing its spelling or adding any affixes.

  • Example: Noun Google converted to Verb "I'm going to Google that."
  • Example: Adjective empty converted to Verb "They empty the bin."
Borrowing (Loan Words)

What it is: Taking a word (or phrase) directly from another language. This is one of the most common ways English expands its vocabulary.

  • Example (French): Ballet, café.
  • Example (Italian): Piano, spaghetti.
  • Example (Japanese): Sushi, karaoke.
Blending

What it is: Merging parts of two words into one new word, where both original meanings contribute to the new word's meaning.

  • Example: Smoke + fog = smog.
  • Example: Breakfast + lunch = brunch.
Backformation

What it is: Creating a new (usually shorter) word by removing a perceived affix from an existing word. It often involves creating a verb from a noun.

  • Example: The noun editor existed first. People assumed it was edit + -or, so they created the new verb edit.
  • Example: Donation -> donate.


3. Shortening and Simplifying Words

Acronym

What it is: Abbreviating a phrase by using the initial letters, which are then pronounced as a single word.

  • Example: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
  • Example: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation).
Telescoping

What it is: The process of shortening a word by omitting letters or syllables, usually from the middle or end, making the word 'collapse' in on itself (like a telescope). This is often done for ease of pronunciation.

  • Example: Motorcar shortened to car.
  • Example: Telephone shortened to phone.
Coalescence

What it is: The process where two separate linguistic units (words or sounds) merge together to become one. Historically, this often refers to sounds merging (phonological change), but it can also be seen as a merger of words, similar to blending or telescoping, where separate elements become indistinguishable.

  • Did you know? Historically, in Old English, the phrase 'ic hæbbe' (I have) became merged into the shortened modern English contraction I've. This is a form of coalescence.

🔑 Quick Review: Word Formation Key Takeaway
When analyzing a text for Paper 3, look for signs of new words. If the word is foreign, it's Borrowing. If it's a mix of two words, it's Blending. If it’s an old word used as a new part of speech, it’s Conversion.

Section 2: How Meanings Change (Semantic Change)

This section deals with how the definition of a word shifts over time, even if its form (spelling and pronunciation) stays the same.

1. The Study of Word Origins

Etymology

What it is: The study of the history of a word, tracing its origin and how its meaning and form have changed over time.

Understanding etymology is key to Paper 3 analysis, as it allows you to explain *why* a modern word had a different meaning in an Early Modern English text.

2. Shifts in Value (Positive or Negative)

Amelioration

What it is: When a word's meaning improves, becoming more positive, respected, or socially acceptable over time.

Step-by-Step Example (Amelioration):
1. The word "pretty" once meant "crafty" or "cunning" (a somewhat negative meaning).
2. Over time, its meaning shifted to "attractive" or "pleasing" (a clearly positive meaning).
3. The word has been ameliorated.

  • Another Example: Nice once meant "foolish" or "silly," but now means "pleasant" or "kind."
Pejoration

What it is: When a word's meaning worsens, becoming more negative, derogatory, or unpleasant over time.

Step-by-Step Example (Pejoration):
1. The word "villain" originally just meant a "farm labourer" or "peasant."
2. Because peasants were often viewed negatively by the nobility, the word acquired connotations of low status, crime, and wickedness.
3. The word has undergone pejoration.

  • Another Example: Mistress used to mean any woman who was the head of a household, but now usually refers to a woman in an illicit sexual relationship.

3. Shifts in Scope (Broad or Narrow)

Broadening (or Generalisation)

What it is: When the meaning of a word expands to cover a wider range of concepts, items, or contexts than it originally did.

  • Example: The word dog originally only referred to a specific breed of domestic canine. Now, it is used to refer to all breeds of the animal.
  • Example: Holiday originally meant "holy day" (a specific religious festival). It now refers to any period of rest or travel.
Narrowing (or Specialisation)

What it is: When the meaning of a word becomes more specific and less general over time.

  • Example: The word meat used to be a general term for all food (e.g., "sweetmeats" were candy). Now, it refers only to the flesh of animals used for consumption.
  • Example: Starve once meant simply "to die" (of cold, sickness, or hunger). Now, it has narrowed to mean specifically "to die from lack of food."

💡 Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't confuse Broadening/Narrowing with Amelioration/Pejoration. Scope (Broadening/Narrowing) is about the *quantity* of things a word refers to, while Value (Amelioration/Pejoration) is about the *quality* (positive/negative feel) of the word.

🎯 Quick Review: Semantic Change Key Takeaway
When analyzing an old text, identify a word that seems odd. If its meaning is better now than before, it's Amelioration. If its meaning is worse, it's Pejoration. If the word used to mean "everything related to X" but now means "just X," it's Narrowing.

Putting it Together: How to Use this Terminology in Paper 3

In Paper 3, you won't just list these terms; you must use them to analyze language data.

  • Analyzing Historical Text: If you find a word like furniture (which was borrowed from French in the 16th century), you can comment on the process of Borrowing and relate it to cultural contact during the Early Modern English period.
  • Analyzing Quantitative Data (n-grams/Corpus Data): If an n-gram graph shows a rapid decline in the use of a once-common word (perhaps due to Narrowing or Pejoration), you can synthesize the data and explain the likely semantic change that drove the term out of popular use.


Don't worry if this seems tricky at first—practice applying these concepts to historical texts, and you’ll see the patterns emerge! Good luck!