History | Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

Welcome to Germany: Development of Dictatorship (1918–1945)

Hello future historians! This chapter is one of the most intense and important topics in modern history. We are going to explore how Germany went from a defeat in World War I (1918) to a struggling democracy (the Weimar Republic), and finally, how Adolf Hitler completely seized control and plunged the world into war.

Don't worry if this seems like a lot! We will break down this complex story into clear, easy-to-digest stages. Understanding this transition from democracy to dictatorship is crucial for your exam success.

I. The Birth and Struggle of the Weimar Republic (1918–1923)

The End of War and the New Republic

In November 1918, Germany was defeated. Kaiser Wilhelm II fled, and the country was declared a republic. In 1919, politicians met in the city of Weimar to create a new, democratic constitution, leading to the name The Weimar Republic.

Key Features of the Weimar Constitution (Strengths and Weaknesses)

The constitution was very democratic, but it contained fatal flaws that Hitler would later exploit:

• Strengths: All Germans over 20 could vote; proportional representation (fair allocation of seats).
• Weakness 1: Proportional Representation: Led to dozens of small parties, making it impossible to form a stable majority government. Governments constantly collapsed.
• Weakness 2: Article 48: This crucial clause allowed the President to rule by decree (make laws without consulting the Reichstag—the parliament) in an emergency. This was intended for extreme crises but undermined democracy.

Memory Aid: Think of Article 48 as the "Emergency Exit" button that the President could push. If used too often, it shows the main system is broken.

The Immediate Problems (1919–1923): 'The Years of Crisis'

The new government faced immediate, massive opposition and disaster:

1. The Treaty of Versailles (June 1919)

Germany was forced to accept a harsh peace treaty, which included:

• Territorial Losses: Lost valuable land and colonies.
• Military Restrictions: Army limited to 100,000 men; no air force; small navy.
• War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Germany had to accept full responsibility for starting the war.
• Reparations: Massive fines (set at £6.6 billion) to be paid to the Allies.

The German public hated the treaty and blamed the politicians who signed it—calling them the "November Criminals" and the treaty a Diktat (a dictated peace).

2. Political Uprisings

Both communists (left-wing) and nationalists (right-wing) attempted to overthrow the government:

• The Spartacist Uprising (Jan 1919): A Communist attempt in Berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. It was crushed by the Freikorps (ex-soldiers).
• The Kapp Putsch (Mar 1920): A right-wing attempt led by Wolfgang Kapp. The regular army refused to fight the Freikorps, but the Putsch failed when Berlin workers organized a massive strike.

3. The Ruhr Crisis and Hyperinflation (1923)

• The Crisis: Germany failed to make a reparations payment in 1922. In response, France and Belgium invaded the industrial region of the Ruhr in 1923 to take goods instead of money.
• The Government Response: The Weimar government ordered the Ruhr workers to practice passive resistance (go on strike) and promised to keep paying their wages.
• Hyperinflation: To pay the striking workers, the government printed huge amounts of money. This caused the value of the currency (the Mark) to drop almost instantly. Prices soared out of control.

Analogy: Imagine needing a shopping bag full of bank notes just to buy a loaf of bread, and then realizing an hour later the price has doubled. Savings became worthless overnight. While debtors benefited, the middle class (who relied on savings) were ruined.

II. The Golden Years of Stability (1924–1929)

After the chaos of 1923, Germany enjoyed a period of political stability, economic recovery, and cultural flourishing. This was largely thanks to the work of politician Gustav Stresemann.

Stresemann's Influence and Economic Recovery

Stresemann served as Chancellor and then Foreign Minister. He stabilized Germany:

• Ending Hyperinflation: He introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark, which was strictly controlled.
• The Dawes Plan (1924): This agreement restructured Germany’s reparation payments. Crucially, the US loaned massive amounts of money to Germany to kickstart the economy. (Germany used US money to pay reparations to France/Britain, who then paid war debts back to the US—a circular system).
• The Young Plan (1929): Further reduced the total reparations debt and gave Germany longer to pay.

International Relations and Success

Stresemann successfully brought Germany back into the international community:

• Locarno Pact (1925): Germany accepted its new western borders with France and Belgium. This dramatically improved relations with old enemies.
• League of Nations (1926): Germany was finally allowed to join the League of Nations, recognizing it as a major power again.
• Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): Germany and 64 other nations agreed to solve disputes peacefully, renouncing war.

Did You Know? Stresemann won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926 for his diplomatic efforts.

Culture and Society

The 1920s saw a boom in culture, particularly in Berlin. There was a spirit of experimentation in art, film, architecture, and nightlife, often seen as very modern and liberal. However, many traditionalists viewed this modern culture as decadent and immoral.

III. The Collapse of Democracy and the Rise of Hitler (1929–1933)

The Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression

The crucial turning point came in October 1929. The US Stock Market crashed (Wall Street Crash). The consequences for Germany were immediate and devastating:

1. US Loans Withdrawn: American banks demanded their money back from Germany.
2. Economic Collapse: German businesses lost their funding, leading to mass bankruptcies and factory closures.
3. Mass Unemployment: By 1932, unemployment soared to 6 million people (about 40% of the workforce).

The government seemed powerless. People lost faith in democracy, believing that weak coalition governments could not solve the crisis. They started looking towards extreme solutions—either Communism (Left) or Nazism (Right).

The Appeal of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP)

Adolf Hitler had attempted a failed coup in 1923 (the Munich Putsch) and served time in prison, where he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle). By 1929, the Nazi Party (NSDAP) was still small, but the Depression gave it momentum.

Why Did the Nazis Gain Support?

• Strong Leadership: Hitler offered decisive, charismatic leadership, contrasting with the ineffective Chancellors.
• Propaganda: Joseph Goebbels used modern technology (radio, cinema, massive rallies) to spread the Nazi message simply and effectively.
• Scaring the Middle Class: The Nazis promised to stop the Communist threat, appealing heavily to the middle classes, farmers, and business owners who feared a Soviet-style revolution.
• The SA (Stormtroopers): The Nazi private army provided protection at rallies and physically intimidated opponents (known as the Brownshirts).
• Scapegoating: Hitler blamed Germany's problems on the "November Criminals," Communists, and Jews, giving people someone to hate and focus their anger on.

The Path to Power (January 1933)

The years 1930–1932 were marked by political instability, constant elections, and the rise of the extremist parties. Hitler repeatedly failed to win a majority but became a major political player.

• By mid-1932, the Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag (though still not a majority).
• President Hindenburg and his conservative advisors (like Franz von Papen) initially hated Hitler but desperately wanted to stop the growing influence of the Communists.
• They believed they could control Hitler, seeing him as a useful puppet.
• On 30 January 1933, they convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor, believing they had him "boxed in." This was a catastrophic miscalculation.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Hitler did NOT seize power in a violent coup in 1933. He was appointed legally as Chancellor by President Hindenburg.

IV. Consolidating the Dictatorship (1933–1934)

Once appointed Chancellor, Hitler moved rapidly to dismantle democracy and establish total control (a process called Gleichschaltung or 'co-ordination'). This process took only 18 months.

Step 1: The Reichstag Fire and Emergency Powers (Feb 1933)

• Just six days before a crucial election, the Reichstag building was set on fire. A Dutch Communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was blamed.
• Hitler convinced President Hindenburg that the fire was the start of a Communist revolution.
• Hindenburg issued the Decree for the Protection of People and State (The Emergency Decree). This decree suspended civil liberties (like freedom of speech and assembly), allowing the Nazis to arrest thousands of opponents (especially Communists) and shut down opposition newspapers.

Step 2: The Enabling Act (March 1933)

This was the legal death of the Weimar Republic. Using the fear generated by the Reichstag Fire, Hitler secured enough votes (using the SA to intimidate others) to pass the Enabling Act.

• The Act allowed Hitler (the Chancellor) to make laws without consulting the Reichstag or the President for four years.
• This officially turned Germany into a dictatorship.

Step 3: Removing Opposition (April–July 1933)

Hitler quickly banned all other political parties (apart from the NSDAP) and made membership in other parties illegal. Trade unions were also banned and replaced by the German Labour Front (DAF).

Step 4: The Night of the Long Knives (June 1934)

By 1934, Hitler faced two main threats:

1. Ernst Röhm and the SA: The SA (Stormtroopers) were too violent, loyal only to Röhm, and numbered 4 million men. Röhm wanted the SA to become the new German army, threatening the regular army (the Reichswehr).
2. The Army (Reichswehr): Hitler needed the support of the established army generals to expand the military and fulfil his plans. The generals demanded that Röhm and the SA be dealt with.

In June 1934, Hitler ordered the SS (led by Heinrich Himmler) to arrest and execute Röhm and hundreds of other SA leaders and political opponents. This action secured the loyalty of the army and removed a rival power base.

Step 5: The Führer Oath (August 1934)

When President Hindenburg died in August 1934, Hitler immediately abolished the office of President. He declared himself Führer (Leader)—combining the roles of Chancellor and President.

• Every soldier and civil servant had to take a personal oath of allegiance, not to Germany, but directly to Hitler.

V. Life in Nazi Germany (1933–1945)

The Nazi regime maintained its control through a combination of terror, propaganda, and economic success.

Control and Terror: The Police State

The Nazis used a vast network of police and terror organizations to enforce conformity:

• The SS (Schutzstaffel): Led by Heinrich Himmler, the SS was Hitler's elite security force and racial guard. They ran the concentration camps and later the death camps.
• The Gestapo (Secret State Police): They were the non-uniformed secret police. Their role was to spy on the population, intercept opposition, and ensure that people were obeying the laws, often relying on public informers. They had the power to arrest, detain, and torture without trial.
• Concentration Camps: Set up immediately in 1933 (e.g., Dachau) to imprison political opponents (Communists, Socialists, trade unionists) without trial. Later used for 'undesirables' (homeless, homosexuals, Jews).
• The Courts: Judges had to swear loyalty to Hitler and sentences were handed down to support Nazi ideology.

Propaganda and Censorship

Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, controlled all forms of media and culture to ensure loyalty to the Führer:

• Media Control: All newspapers, radio broadcasts, films, and arts were strictly censored to present the Nazi message and glorify Hitler.
• The Führer Myth: Propaganda painted Hitler as Germany’s saviour—strong, decisive, and dedicated.
• Rallies: Massive annual rallies (e.g., Nuremberg) were staged to demonstrate power and unity.

Economic Policy: Work and Rearmament

Hitler’s primary goal was to prepare Germany for war (Rearmament) and achieve economic self-sufficiency (Autarky).

• Reducing Unemployment: This was a major success. Hitler used massive state spending on public works projects (like building the Autobahns, or highways) and, critically, rearmament. Unemployment dropped from 6 million in 1933 to almost zero by 1939.
• Dr. Schacht and the New Plan: Hjalmar Schacht, the Economic Minister, managed to finance early rearmament through clever financial schemes and trade agreements.
• The Four Year Plan (1936): Led by Hermann Göring, this plan aimed to make Germany ready for war in four years, focusing on self-sufficiency in raw materials (Autarky).

Note: While unemployment fell, workers lost their rights (trade unions banned, wages fixed), and Jewish people were not counted in employment statistics.

Social Policy: Shaping the Future

1. Youth

The Nazis aimed to indoctrinate the young to be loyal supporters and future soldiers.

• Hitler Youth (HJ): Became compulsory in 1939. Boys trained in military skills; girls trained for domestic life and motherhood.
• Education: The curriculum was rewritten. History focused on German greatness; Biology focused on 'racial purity'; students were taught total loyalty to Hitler.

2. Women

The Nazi ideal for women was encapsulated by the three German words: Kinder, Küche, Kirche (Children, Kitchen, Church). Women were encouraged to stay home, have many children (awarded the Mother’s Cross), and uphold traditional values. They were pushed out of professions like medicine and law.

3. Religion

Hitler needed the Church to support his rule, but also saw it as a rival power.

• Concordat (1933): Hitler signed an agreement with the Catholic Church, promising not to interfere if the Church stayed out of politics. Hitler later broke this agreement.
• Protestant Church: Many Protestant churches were merged into the Nazi-backed Reich Church. Opposing Protestants, like Martin Niemöller, formed the Confessional Church but faced persecution.

Racial Policy and Persecution

Nazi ideology centered on the concept of the Aryan Master Race and the hatred of 'subhumans' (Untermenschen), especially Slavs, Roma, homosexuals, and mentally ill people. The Jewish population was the main target.

• Early Persecution (1933–1934): Boycotts of Jewish shops and removal of Jews from civil service jobs.
• Nuremberg Laws (1935): These landmark laws formalized discrimination:
  • Jews lost their German citizenship (political rights).
  • Marriage or sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews was banned (racial purity).
• Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass, Nov 1938): A massive coordinated campaign of violence across Germany, where Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues were burned and destroyed. Thousands of Jews were sent to concentration camps.

The Road to the 'Final Solution' (1939–1945)

With the start of World War II, anti-Jewish policy escalated into mass murder (genocide).

• Ghettos: Jews in occupied territories were forced into crowded, sealed-off city districts (ghettos), where many starved or died of disease.
• Einsatzgruppen: Special killing squads followed the German army into Eastern Europe, conducting mass shootings.
• The Final Solution (1942): At the Wannsee Conference, Nazi leaders formalized the plan for the systematic extermination of all European Jews. This led to the establishment of purpose-built extermination camps (like Auschwitz and Treblinka), completing the dictatorship's horrific journey from discrimination to genocide.

This represents the darkest point of the dictatorship, concluding the period of 1918–1945.

You have now covered the entire development of the Nazi dictatorship. Remember that understanding the connections between the collapse of Weimar and the rise of Hitler is key to exam success!