History | Development of a nation: unification of Italy, 1848–70

Welcome to Your Study Notes on Italian Unification!

Hello future historian! You are about to dive into one of the most exciting and complex "Depth Studies": how Italy transformed from a messy collection of small states into a single nation between 1848 and 1870. This process is called Risorgimento (meaning 'Resurgence').

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first—we will break down the strategies, the wars, and the brilliant people who made it happen. Understanding this chapter helps you see how nationalism can both unite and divide people, a key theme in modern history.

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1. Italy Before 1848: The Jigsaw Puzzle

1.1 A Divided Land

Before unification, Italy wasn't a country; it was a "geographical expression." Think of it like a jigsaw puzzle whose pieces were owned by different people, many of them foreign. There was no single government, flag, or set of laws.

The main challenges preventing unification were:

• Foreign Control: The powerful Austrian Empire controlled large, wealthy areas in the North (Lombardy and Venetia).
• The Papal States: The Pope governed a large strip of land across the middle of the peninsula. He had religious and political power and relied on French troops to protect his territory.
• Local Rulers: Southern Italy (the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty (a branch of Spanish royalty).
• Regional Differences: Vast differences existed between the industrializing North and the largely agrarian (farming) South.

1.2 The Seeds of Nationalism

Despite the divisions, a growing feeling of nationalism (the desire for a shared Italian identity and a unified state) began to spread among the educated middle classes.

• This movement was often secret, relying on groups like the Carbonari (coal burners), who held clandestine meetings to plot against foreign rulers.

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2. The Three Architects of Unification

Italian unification required three very different personalities. You must know their roles!

2.1 Giuseppe Mazzini: The Soul (The Idealist)

Mazzini was the great thinker and revolutionary idealist. He believed unification should happen through revolution and should result in a Republic (no king).

• Key Contribution: Founded "Young Italy" in 1831. Its motto was "God and the People."
• Goal: A unified, free, and democratic Italian Republic, achieved by the people themselves.
• Why he failed: His uprisings (like the one in 1848) were often poorly organized and brutally suppressed. His vision was too idealistic for the military power of Austria.

2.2 Count Camillo di Cavour: The Brain (The Realist Politician)

Cavour was the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia (the strongest independent state, ruled by King Victor Emmanuel II). Cavour was a master diplomat and politician, not a radical revolutionary.

• Key Approach: Realpolitik (politics based on practical goals rather than ideology). He realized Italy needed powerful friends (like France) to defeat Austria.
• Goal: To unite Italy under the King of Piedmont, using war and diplomacy, not just revolution.

2.3 Giuseppe Garibaldi: The Sword (The Military Hero)

Garibaldi was the brave, charismatic military leader who was fiercely loyal to Mazzini’s republican ideals but eventually submitted to Cavour’s monarchical plan for the greater good of Italy.

• Key Contribution: Led the famous "The Thousand" (I Mille)—a small army of volunteers known as the Red Shirts.
• Role: Conquered the South of Italy almost single-handedly.

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3. The Turning Point: Piedmont’s Leadership (1850s)

3.1 Cavour’s Domestic Policy: Making Piedmont Strong

Cavour knew that Piedmont-Sardinia had to look like a modern, credible state before it could lead Italy. He worked hard to modernize it:

• He built railways and factories, making the economy strong.
• He reduced the power of the Catholic Church in state affairs.
• He created a strong, reliable army.

3.2 Cavour’s Diplomacy: Finding Allies

The crucial step was getting an ally willing to fight Austria. Cavour cleverly used international events to gain attention:

Step 1: The Crimean War (1854–56)

• Piedmont had no real stake in this war (fought against Russia).
• Cavour sent 18,000 Piedmontese troops to fight alongside Britain and France.
• Why this mattered: It gave Cavour a seat at the peace conference (Congress of Paris, 1856). He raised the issue of Austrian oppression in Italy, presenting Piedmont as a responsible, modern European power. This was his "foot in the door."

Step 2: The Plombières Agreement (1858)

This was a secret deal between Cavour and the French Emperor, Napoleon III.

1. France would support Piedmont if Austria attacked first.
2. If they won, Italy would be reorganized into four parts, and France would receive the territories of Nice and Savoy (Cavour's promise).

Analogy: Cavour tricked Austria into throwing the first punch, so that France was legally obliged to help Piedmont.

Key Takeaway: Cavour used international relations brilliantly. He didn't just wait for revolution; he engineered international conflict to achieve his goal.

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4. War and Annexation (1859–1860)

4.1 The War of 1859 (The Second War of Italian Independence)

• Cavour successfully provoked Austria into declaring war in April 1859.
• French and Piedmontese forces won decisive battles at Magenta and Solferino.
• However, Napoleon III suddenly pulled out of the war and signed the Armistice of Villafranca with Austria, without consulting Cavour.

Why did Napoleon III stop? He was scared of high French casualties and worried about Prussian intervention.

Result of Villafranca: Piedmont received Lombardy (the western part of Austrian territory), but Venetia remained under Austrian control.

4.2 Annexation of the Central States (1860)

Even though Napoleon III backed out, the war had sparked revolutionary fervor. The states of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma (in Central Italy) overthrew their local rulers and demanded to join Piedmont.

• Cavour arranged plebiscites (referendums/votes) in these states.
• The results overwhelmingly favoured annexation by Piedmont.

Key Takeaway: By 1860, the North (except Venetia) and the centre were united under Victor Emmanuel II. Now, attention turned to the South.

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5. Garibaldi’s Expedition and The Meeting at Teano

5.1 The Expedition of the Thousand (1860)

The South was ruled by the Bourbons, who were highly unpopular. Garibaldi saw his chance.

• In May 1860, Garibaldi set sail from Genoa with approximately 1,000 volunteers (The Red Shirts).
• They landed in Sicily and, astonishingly, defeated the large Bourbon army, gaining huge popular support from Sicilian peasants.
• Garibaldi quickly crossed the mainland, capturing Naples in September 1860.

Did You Know? Garibaldi was so popular that Bourbon troops often deserted to join him, ensuring his rapid success.

5.2 The Crucial Crossroads: Cavour vs. Garibaldi

By late 1860, Garibaldi controlled all of Southern Italy. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II were now worried:

• Garibaldi was a republican (no king). Would he attack Rome and hand the power to Mazzini, potentially causing a huge European war?
• Cavour quickly sent Piedmontese troops South, marching through the Papal States (avoiding Rome itself), effectively cutting off Garibaldi's advance.

5.3 The Handover at Teano (October 1860)

The Piedmontese army met Garibaldi near the town of Teano. Garibaldi, despite his republican beliefs and military power, decided not to fight the Royal Army.

• He famously handed over his conquered territories to King Victor Emmanuel II.
• His simple message was: "I hail the King of Italy."
• Garibaldi then retired to his small island farm, choosing national unity over personal power or ideology.

This was the defining moment: Garibaldi completed the physical unification of Italy, but Cavour ensured it was a monarchy under Piedmontese leadership.

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6. The Kingdom of Italy and Final Steps (1861–1870)

6.1 The Proclamation of the Kingdom (1861)

In March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was officially proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as the first King. Only two major territories remained outside the kingdom:

1. Venetia (still held by Austria).
2. Rome and Lazio (protected by the Pope and French troops).

Tragically, Cavour died in June 1861, just three months after the kingdom was founded. The difficult task of building the nation fell to his successors.

6.2 Completing the Puzzle (1866 and 1870)

Italy had to wait for opportunities created by greater European conflicts.

1866: Acquisition of Venetia

• Italy allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War.
• Although Italian forces were heavily defeated by Austria, Prussia won the war decisively.
• In the peace settlement, Austria was forced to cede Venetia to Italy.

1870: Acquisition of Rome

• The Franco-Prussian War began. Napoleon III needed all his troops to fight Prussia, so he recalled the French garrison protecting the Pope in Rome.
• Italian troops immediately marched into Rome (known as the 'Breach of Porta Pia').
• Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

Key Takeaway: Unification was complete, but it was finished not through Italian military might, but through smart diplomacy (Cavour’s legacy) and opportunistic timing relating to other major wars.

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7. Challenges After Unification ("Italy is made; now we must make Italians")

While Italy was geographically united by 1870, the process created severe problems that lasted for decades:

7.1 The North-South Divide (The 'Southern Problem')

The South felt conquered, not liberated. The new government imposed Piedmontese laws, taxes, and centralized administration, which favored the industrialized North.

• Piedmontese officials often ignored Southern concerns, leading to banditry and resentment.
• This established a deep economic and social divide that persists today.

7.2 Relations with the Papacy

The Pope (Pius IX) refused to recognize the legitimacy of the Kingdom of Italy, since his lands had been seized.

• He declared himself a "Prisoner in the Vatican."
• He forbade Italian Catholics from voting in elections or holding political office (a position known as non expedit). This severely hampered the development of a stable political system.
• This conflict was not resolved until the Lateran Treaties of 1929.

7.3 Political and Social Unity

The new nation faced immense political instability. Very few people could vote, and different regions spoke different dialects and held different loyalties.