Welcome to B4 China: Conflict, Crisis and Change (1900–1989)!

Hello future historians! This chapter is one of the most exciting and transformative periods in world history. We are going to explore how China, once a centuries-old empire, collapsed, endured decades of brutal conflict, and eventually established itself as a modern Communist nation, only to change direction again by the late 1980s.

Don't worry if the names seem complicated at first. We will break down this vast 90-year period into easy, manageable steps. By the end, you will understand the causes and effects of the revolutions, wars, and social experiments that shaped modern China.

Section 1: The Collapse of the Empire and the Birth of Conflict (1900–1927)

1.1 The Weakening of the Qing Dynasty (Pre-1911)

By 1900, the Qing Dynasty (the ruling family of China) was in serious trouble. China had suffered embarrassing defeats by foreign powers (like Britain and Japan) and was carved up into "Spheres of Influence," where foreign nations controlled trade and resources.

Analogy: Imagine China was a giant cake, and foreign powers (Britain, France, Germany, Japan) were all taking huge slices without permission.

  • Foreign Control: Increased resentment among the Chinese population.
  • Boxer Rebellion (1900): A violent uprising against foreigners and Chinese Christians. It was brutally crushed by an international army, further proving the weakness of the Qing government.

1.2 The 1911 Revolution and the Warlord Era

The Qing Dynasty was finally overthrown in the 1911 Revolution. This marked the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.

  • Key Figure: Sun Yat-sen, often called the Father of modern China, was the key revolutionary leader. He introduced the Three Principles of the People (Nationalism, Democracy, People's Livelihood).
  • The Result: China became a Republic, but it was fragile.

The Warlord Era (1916–1927): After a brief attempt at a Republic failed, central government collapsed. China broke up into areas controlled by local military generals, known as Warlords. They constantly fought each other, leading to chaos, high taxes, and suffering for the peasants.

Quick Review: 1900–1927

Qing Dynasty > 1911 Revolution (Sun Yat-sen) > Warlords take control. China is divided and weak.

Section 2: The Two Great Rivals – GMD vs. CCP

To unite China and end the Warlord Era, two major political parties emerged:

2.1 The Guomindang (GMD) – The Nationalists

  • Leaders: Initially Sun Yat-sen, later Chiang Kai-shek.
  • Beliefs: Nationalist, aimed to create a unified, capitalist (or non-communist) China. They represented the business class, landowners, and the urban elite.

2.2 The Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

  • Leaders: Eventually led by Mao Zedong.
  • Beliefs: Communist, inspired by the Soviet Union. They focused on organising the proletariat (workers) and, crucially in China, the peasants.

2.3 The Northern Expedition and the Shanghai Massacre (1926–1927)

Initially, the GMD and CCP formed a United Front to defeat the Warlords. The Northern Expedition (1926-28) was a military campaign led by Chiang Kai-shek to march north and unify China.

However, Chiang Kai-shek (GMD) feared the growing power of the Communists. In April 1927, in what is known as the Shanghai Massacre, Chiang brutally attacked and murdered thousands of Communists and trade unionists in Shanghai and other cities. This ended the alliance and began the long and bloody Chinese Civil War.

Section 3: The Triumph of Mao Zedong (1927–1949)

3.1 The First Civil War and the Long March (1927–1935)

After the massacre, the CCP were forced into rural areas. Mao Zedong developed a new strategy: focusing on the peasants, not just urban workers. The GMD forces continually attacked the Communist strongholds (or 'soviets').

The Long March (1934–1935):

Mao’s Communist army (the Red Army) was surrounded by GMD forces. To survive, they broke out and marched over 6,000 miles (about 10,000 km) across China, through mountains and swamps, constantly fighting the GMD.

  • Huge Sacrifice: Over 80,000 troops started; fewer than 8,000 finished.
  • Historical Importance: It was a massive propaganda victory. It proved the determination of the CCP, won peasant support along the route, and solidified Mao Zedong as the undisputed leader of the CCP.

Memory Aid: The Long March made Mao’s leadership Legendary and Lasted for years.

3.2 The War Against Japan (1937–1945)

Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937. Both the GMD and the CCP were forced to form a temporary Second United Front to fight the common enemy.

  • GMD Weakness: Chiang Kai-shek’s government focused on cities but often appeared corrupt and less effective in fighting Japan than the CCP guerrillas.
  • CCP Strength: Mao’s forces used guerrilla warfare effectively, gaining respect and support from the peasants in the countryside they protected.

3.3 The Final Civil War and Communist Victory (1945–1949)

Once Japan was defeated in 1945, the Civil War immediately restarted. The GMD had more money, men, and weapons (supported by the USA), but they lost because:

  • GMD Corruption: GMD soldiers and officials stole aid money, leading to hyperinflation and collapse of morale.
  • CCP Peasant Support: The Communists promised Land Reform (taking land from rich landlords and giving it to the poor). This won them massive support in the countryside.

On October 1, 1949, the CCP declared victory. Chiang Kai-shek and the GMD retreated to the island of Taiwan. Mao Zedong declared the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC).

Quick Review: CCP Victory

The CCP won because of Mao’s leadership, GMD corruption, and overwhelming Peasant support (MGP).

Section 4: Mao’s New China: Economic and Social Change (1950s)

4.1 Initial Reforms and Land Reform

Mao immediately focused on establishing control and implementing socialist policies.

  • Land Reform (1950): Landlords were executed or imprisoned, and their land was redistributed among the peasants. This was popular but often very violent.
  • First Five-Year Plan (1953–1957): Aimed to rapidly industrialise China, following the Soviet model. It focused heavily on developing heavy industries (steel, coal) and saw modest successes.

4.2 The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957)

Mao encouraged intellectuals, writers, and artists to express their opinions about the CCP government. The slogan was: "Let a hundred flowers bloom; let a hundred schools of thought contend."

The Goal: Mao claimed he wanted constructive criticism to improve the CCP.

The Reality (The Anti-Rightist Campaign): The criticism was far more intense than Mao expected. He quickly ended the campaign and launched the Anti-Rightist Campaign, brutally punishing those who had spoken out. Thousands were sent to labour camps or executed. The lesson learned was: Do not criticise Mao.

Section 5: Economic Disaster – The Great Leap Forward (1958–1962)

Dissatisfied with the pace of the Soviet-style industrialisation, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward (GLF). His goal was to achieve rapid, simultaneous industrialisation and agricultural growth—a 'super-fast' transition to true Communism.

5.1 Key Features of the GLF

  • Communes: All private farming was abolished. Peasants were organised into enormous People's Communes, where everything (work, food, childcare) was shared and controlled by the state.
  • Backyard Furnaces: Mao encouraged everyone, even peasants, to build small furnaces in their backyards to produce steel.

5.2 The Catastrophe

The GLF was an utter failure and resulted in one of the worst human-made famines in history:

  • Economic Disaster: The steel produced in the backyard furnaces was useless scrap metal. This wasted resources and fuel.
  • Agricultural Collapse: Peasants were forced to spend time making useless steel instead of farming. When crops were planted, officials lied about the harvest size to impress Mao, leading the state to take too much grain.
  • The Great Famine (1959–1962): Estimates suggest between 20 to 45 million people died of starvation. This crisis severely damaged Mao’s standing within the CCP leadership.

Key Takeaway: The GLF was a huge, rushed experiment in communal living and industry that tragically ignored basic economic and agricultural realities.

Section 6: Political Purge – The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)

After the GLF disaster, Mao was sidelined from decision-making. Leaders like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping took over economic management. Mao feared he was losing control and influence, so he launched the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1966.

6.1 The Aims of the Cultural Revolution

Mao wanted to achieve three things:

  1. Regain personal power and authority.
  2. Remove any rivals within the CCP (like Liu and Deng).
  3. Purify Communism by purging China of the Four Olds: Old Ideas, Old Culture, Old Customs, and Old Habits.

6.2 The Tools of the Revolution

  • The Red Guards: Groups of enthusiastic, radical students, encouraged by Mao, who attacked anyone suspected of being a 'capitalist roader' or having 'old' ideas. They wore military uniforms and carried the Little Red Book (a compilation of Mao’s quotations).
  • Chaos and Violence: Teachers, doctors, intellectuals, and former Party members were publicly humiliated, tortured, or killed. Universities and schools were shut down. Historical sites were vandalised.

Did you know? The Cultural Revolution was essentially a massive internal struggle disguised as a revolution against 'old' ways. Mao used the passion of young students to tear down the very structures and officials who opposed him.

The Cultural Revolution only officially ended with Mao’s death in 1976, though the worst violence subsided earlier.

Section 7: China After Mao – The Rise of Deng Xiaoping (1976–1989)

Mao Zedong died in September 1976. This marked the end of the extreme ideological and violent period of Chinese communism.

7.1 The Rise of Deng Xiaoping

After a brief power struggle, Deng Xiaoping (who had been purged during the Cultural Revolution) took control of China. Deng was pragmatic and focused on economic growth rather than endless revolution.

Deng’s most famous quote illustrates his practical approach: "It doesn't matter if the cat is black or white, as long as it catches mice." (Meaning: It doesn't matter if the policy is strictly Communist or slightly capitalist, as long as it makes the economy work).

7.2 The Four Modernisations (1978 onwards)

Deng’s leadership moved China away from Maoist collectivism towards market-based reforms. The Four Modernisations were Deng’s plan to revolutionise:

  1. Agriculture: Introduced the Responsibility System. Families leased state land and could keep or sell any extra produce after meeting state quotas. This dramatically improved food production.
  2. Industry: Allowed private businesses and joint ventures with foreign companies.
  3. Science and Technology: Encouraged education and research.
  4. Defence: Modernised the armed forces.

Deng created Special Economic Zones (SEZs) along the coast. These zones offered tax breaks and low rents to foreign companies, encouraging investment and exports.

7.3 Limitations on Change (Up to 1989)

While Deng brought massive economic freedom, he kept strict political control. The Chinese Communist Party remained firmly in power, and there was no equivalent to the 'Four Modernisations' for democracy or political freedom.

This economic liberalisation without political liberalisation created tension, a factor that underpinned the events that would occur later in 1989, just at the end of this study period.

Summary and Key Takeaways

This period saw China swing wildly:

  • 1900s–1910s: Collapse of the Empire and descent into Warlord chaos.
  • 1920s–1940s: Struggle between the GMD (Nationalists) and the CCP (Communists), interrupted by Japan, leading to CCP victory in 1949.
  • 1950s–1970s (Mao Era): Massive social engineering: Land Reform, the failed Great Leap Forward (famine), and the destructive Cultural Revolution (political chaos).
  • 1970s–1989 (Deng Era): Focus shifts from ideology to economics (Four Modernisations), leading to rapid economic growth but continued political authoritarianism.

The biggest constant in this period is conflict, whether military (Civil War), economic (GLF), or political (Cultural Revolution), demonstrating the enormous pressures China faced in transforming into a modern state.