History | A divided union: civil rights in the USA, 1945–74

Welcome to A Divided Union: Civil Rights in the USA, 1945–74

Hello Historians! This chapter is incredibly important. You are going to study one of the most significant periods in American history: the fight by African Americans for equality and basic human rights. It’s a story of courage, protest, law, and massive social change.

Don't worry if some of the names and events seem overwhelming at first. We will break them down step-by-step, focusing on who, what, and why. By the end, you will understand the strategies people used and how the law changed the course of history.

Key Focus Points for this Chapter:

• The reality of segregation (Jim Crow laws).
• The shift from legal battles to mass direct action.
• Key leaders, like Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X.
• The major laws passed by the US Government.

Section 1: The Context – Segregation and Jim Crow (Post-WWII)

The Reality of Separation

Before we look at the fight, we must understand the system they were fighting against. In the American South, separation of races (segregation) was legally enforced. This system was known as Jim Crow Laws.

De Jure vs. De Facto Segregation

It is important to know the difference between these two terms:

• De Jure Segregation: Means 'by law.' This was common in the Southern states. Laws specifically forced black and white people to use separate facilities (schools, buses, restaurants, toilets).
• De Facto Segregation: Means 'by fact' or 'by custom.' This was common in Northern states. While there were usually no specific laws forcing separation, racial segregation existed due to housing patterns, economic practices, and social tradition.

Analogy: Imagine two different drinking fountains. The 'white' one is clean and working; the 'coloured' one is dirty and broken. This physical separation symbolised massive inequality in education, jobs, and housing.

Did you know? Even after serving bravely in World War II, African American soldiers returned home only to be forced back into segregated America, intensifying the demand for change.

Section 2: Early Challenges and Legal Battles (The NAACP)

The earliest and most effective strategy against Jim Crow was fighting it in the courts. The main organisation leading this legal battle was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

Thurgood Marshall and Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

The NAACP, led by brilliant lawyers like Thurgood Marshall (who later became the first African American Supreme Court Justice), targeted the foundation of Jim Crow. Their biggest victory challenged the legality of school segregation.

The Importance of the Brown Decision

• The Case: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.
• The Issue: Challenging the idea that segregated schools could be 'equal' (the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896).
• The Ruling (1954): The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."
• The Impact: This ruling declared state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional. It was a massive legal blow to Jim Crow.

The Little Rock Crisis (1957)

The Brown decision faced immediate resistance, especially in the Deep South. The most famous example is the attempt to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas.

Nine black students (the Little Rock Nine) tried to attend the school. The Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, used the state National Guard to block them. This was a direct defiance of federal law.

President Dwight D. Eisenhower was forced to act. He sent 1,000 troops from the US Army's 101st Airborne Division to protect the students and ensure the court ruling was enforced. This showed that the federal government, sometimes reluctantly, had the power to enforce integration.

Section 3: The Power of Direct Action and Non-Violence

While legal battles were vital, many believed change was too slow. A new approach emerged: Non-violent Direct Action, inspired by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi. This involved peaceful protest designed to disrupt systems and draw massive public attention.

1. The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56)

This is often seen as the starting point of the modern Civil Rights Movement.

• The Spark: Rosa Parks, a dedicated NAACP activist, refused to give up her seat to a white man on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama (December 1955).
• The Action: African Americans in Montgomery organised a boycott—refusing to ride the buses—which lasted 381 days.
• The Leadership: A young, charismatic preacher named Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) became the leader of the protest organisation (MIA).
• The Result: The economic pressure on the bus company and a Supreme Court ruling forced Montgomery to integrate its buses.

Memory Aid: The Montgomery Bus Boycott showed the immense power of economic pressure and united, peaceful protest.

2. The Sit-in Movement (1960)

Students became increasingly active. In February 1960, four students in Greensboro, North Carolina, staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth’s lunch counter.

• Method: They simply sat down at the 'whites only' counter and refused to leave when denied service.
• Impact: This simple, effective tactic spread rapidly across the South, involving thousands of students and leading to the formation of the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

MLK and other leaders formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to coordinate church-based protests across the South, focusing on non-violence.

Section 4: Confrontation, Legislation, and Federal Power (1961–65)

1. The Freedom Rides (1961)

After federal law mandated integration on interstate travel (buses and trains crossing state lines), activists decided to test whether the South would comply.

• The Goal: Groups of activists, known as Freedom Riders (organised primarily by CORE—Congress of Racial Equality), rode buses from Washington DC deep into the South.
• The Violence: In Alabama, the Riders faced brutal, government-supported violence (mobs attacked buses, setting one on fire).
• The Outcome: The shocking violence drew international media attention, forcing President John F. Kennedy (JFK) to send federal marshals to protect the riders and eventually mandate strict enforcement of integration laws for interstate travel.

2. Birmingham and the March on Washington (1963)

Birmingham, Alabama (Project C)

MLK called Birmingham "the most segregated city in America." In 1963, SCLC launched a campaign there. The city’s Police Commissioner, Eugene "Bull" Connor, responded with extreme brutality: police dogs, fire hoses, and mass arrests (even of children).

The images of this violence broadcast on national television horrified many Americans and gained crucial support for the Civil Rights Movement in the North.

The March on Washington (August 1963)

To push Congress to pass new civil rights legislation, over 250,000 people gathered peacefully in Washington DC. This is where MLK delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. It was a massive demonstration of unity and moral purpose.

3. Landmark Legislation

The events of 1963 (Birmingham, the March, and the assassination of JFK in November 1963) created political momentum. President Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ), determined to pass the laws in JFK's memory, successfully pushed through two monumental pieces of legislation.

A. The Civil Rights Act (1964)

This was the most important piece of civil rights legislation since the end of slavery.

• It legally outlawed segregation in all public accommodations (hotels, restaurants, theatres, etc.).
• It prohibited discrimination in employment based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin.

B. The Voting Rights Act (1965)

This targeted the systemic tactics used in the South to prevent African Americans from registering to vote (like literacy tests and poll taxes).

• It outlawed the use of literacy tests.
• It authorised federal examiners to oversee voter registration in the South, ensuring fairness.
• Result: Black voter registration in the South skyrocketed immediately.

Section 5: The Shift Towards Black Power (After 1965)

Despite the huge success of the 1964 and 1965 Acts, many felt the movement was failing to address ongoing poverty, poor housing, and police brutality in Northern cities. Patience wore thin, and the movement began to radicalise.

1. The Influence of Malcolm X

A powerful alternative voice to MLK was Malcolm X, who rejected MLK's integrationist goals and policy of non-violence.

• Early Beliefs: As a member of the Nation of Islam (NOI), he advocated for Black Nationalism—the idea that African Americans should create their own economy and society, separate from white society.
• Self-Defense: He argued that black people should defend themselves "by any means necessary," criticizing non-violence as weak.
• Impact: Malcolm X spoke powerfully to young, angry black people in Northern ghettos, encouraging pride, self-respect, and cultural identity.

Did you know? After leaving the Nation of Islam in 1964, Malcolm X moderated some of his views on integration shortly before his assassination in 1965.

2. The Rise of Black Power

The term Black Power became popularised by Stokely Carmichael (leader of SNCC) in 1966.

• Core Message: Focus on black pride, black culture, black history, and achieving self-determination (controlling their own communities).
• Shift in SNCC: SNCC expelled its white members and shifted away from non-violence, seeing it as ineffective against police brutality.

3. The Black Panther Party (1966)

The most visible manifestation of Black Power was the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California.

• Beliefs: They demanded equality, employment, housing, and an end to police brutality.
• Actions: They famously monitored police activity while carrying weapons (legally allowed at the time) and ran extensive community support programs, such as free breakfast for children.
• Conflict: Their radical stance and frequent violent confrontations with police led to them being targeted aggressively by the FBI.

The Assassination of MLK (1968)

The assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis in April 1968 led to widespread riots and violence in over 100 cities. It marked the symbolic end of the mass non-violent movement and increased pessimism about achieving peaceful change.

Section 6: Achievements by 1974

By 1974, though deep inequalities remained, the Civil Rights Movement had achieved stunning successes:

• Legal Destruction of Jim Crow: Segregation was outlawed (1964 Civil Rights Act).
• Political Power: Voting rights were secured (1965 Voting Rights Act), leading to a huge increase in the number of black elected officials in the South.
• Education: While integration was slow and often forced, most schools were legally integrated.
• Cultural Impact: The Black Power movement fostered immense racial pride and dignity, redefining the image of African Americans in US society.

However, challenges persisted:

• Economic Inequality: Poverty rates remained high in urban centres.
• De Facto Segregation: Housing and school segregation caused by economic disparity and white flight continued, especially in the North.
• Policing Issues: Police brutality and mistrust remained a major source of tension.