Psychology | Topic B: Cognitive psychology

Welcome to Cognitive Psychology: The Computer in Your Head!

Hello future psychologists! This chapter, Topic B: Cognitive Psychology, is all about the unseen engine that runs our lives: the mind. We are moving away from looking just at external behaviour (like the Behaviourists did) and diving deep inside the brain to study thinking, memory, perception, and language.

Why is this important? Understanding cognitive psychology helps us explain why we forget things, why eyewitnesses sometimes get details wrong, and how we solve complex problems. It forms the backbone of modern psychology! Don't worry if concepts like "memory models" seem tricky; we will break them down step-by-step using analogies you already know. Let's get started!

Section 1: Assumptions of the Cognitive Approach

The Cognitive Approach became popular as a reaction against the Behaviourist approach, which argued we should only study observable behaviour. Cognitivists say: "But what about thinking?"

1.1 The Mind as a Machine Analogy

The central assumption is that the human mind operates much like a computer.

• Input: We receive information from our senses (e.g., seeing a friend, hearing a sound).
• Processing/Storage: We process this information internally (thinking, interpreting, remembering).
• Output: We behave or respond based on that processing (e.g., waving back, running away).

1.2 Internal Mental Processes (Mediational Processes)

This is perhaps the most important concept in the Cognitive Approach.

Key Term: Internal Mental Processes (or Mediational Processes).

These are the hidden mental events that occur between a stimulus (input) and a response (output). Since we can't see them directly, cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making logical inferences about what must be happening inside the mind.

Example: When you hear a complex question (Stimulus), you don't instantly blurt out the answer (Response). You engage in processing: retrieving memories, calculating, forming a sentence. These are mediational processes.

1.3 The Use of Schemas

Cognitive psychologists argue that we don't process every piece of new information from scratch. Instead, we rely on mental shortcuts called schemas.

• Definition: A schema is a mental framework or blueprint developed from experience, which organises information and expectations about the world, people, or events.
• How they help: Schemas allow us to process information quickly and efficiently, preventing cognitive overload.
• The Downside: Because schemas fill in the gaps for us, they can lead to errors, distortions, and stereotypes if the schema is inappropriate or biased.

Analogy: Think of a schema as a pre-filled Google document. When you go into a new classroom, your "Classroom Schema" already expects desks, a whiteboard, and a teacher. You don't have to consciously look for them.

Section 2: Cognitive Models of Memory

Memory is the storage and retrieval system of the mind. Cognitive psychology uses specific models to describe how information flows through this system.

2.1 The Multi-Store Model (MSM) of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

This was the first major structural model, proposing that memory consists of three separate, static stores.

Step 1: The Sensory Register (SR)

This is the holding area for information coming directly from the senses (sight, sound, touch).

• Capacity: Very large (takes in everything).
• Duration: Extremely short (less than half a second).
• Encoding: Sense-specific (e.g., visual for eyes, acoustic for ears).

Did you know? If you quickly focus attention on information in the SR, it passes to the next store. If you don't pay attention, it's quickly lost!

Step 2: Short-Term Memory (STM)

If we pay attention to the Sensory Register, the information moves here. This is your "working space" where you hold things temporarily.

• Capacity: Limited. About \(7 \pm 2\) items (or 'chunks' of information).
• Duration: Limited. About 18–30 seconds, unless rehearsed (repeated).
• Encoding: Mainly Acoustic (sound-based). Even when you read words, you usually "hear" them in your head.

Step 3: Long-Term Memory (LTM)

If we rehearse (repeat and process) the information in the STM enough, it is transferred to the LTM.

• Capacity: Potentially unlimited.
• Duration: Potentially permanent (lifetime).
• Encoding: Mainly Semantic (meaning-based). We remember the meaning of something, not necessarily the exact words used.

Memory Aid: To remember the flow: Some Students Love Memory (SR -> STM -> LTM).

2.2 The Working Memory Model (WMM) (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

Psychologists realised the MSM’s view of STM was too simple. STM isn't just one passive box; it's an active workshop where different types of information are handled simultaneously. This led to the WMM, which focuses specifically on how STM works.

The WMM has four main components, working together to manage information flow:

1. The Central Executive (CE)

This is the "boss" or control centre. It doesn't store information itself, but directs attention and allocates resources (task management) to the two 'slave systems' below.

Analogy: The CE is the CEO of a company, deciding which tasks the employees (slave systems) should focus on.

2. The Phonological Loop (PL)

Deals with auditory information (sound and spoken word).

• Phonological Store (Inner Ear): Stores the actual sounds/words heard.
• Articulatory Control System (Inner Voice): Used for maintenance rehearsal (repeating a phone number to yourself).

3. The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (VSS)

Deals with visual and spatial information (what things look like and where they are). It’s your "inner eye."

Example: When you mentally rotate an object or navigate around your house in your head, you are using the VSS.

4. The Episodic Buffer (EB) – Added later (2000)

This acts as a temporary store that integrates visual, spatial, and acoustic information processed by the other systems. Crucially, it links Working Memory to Long-Term Memory (LTM) by creating complete "episodes" or memories.

Memory Aid for WMM Components: The CEO Plans Very Efficiently (CE, PL, VSS, EB).

Encouraging Note: The WMM is complex, but remember its strength is that it explains how we can multitask (e.g., listen to music, PL, while drawing, VSS) as long as we use different components!

Section 3: Reconstructive Memory and Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)

We often assume memory is like a perfect video recording, but cognitive research shows this is false. Memory is active; it is reconstructed every time we retrieve it, often changing slightly in the process.

3.1 Bartlett’s Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Frederick Bartlett (1932) argued that memory is an imaginative reconstruction of experience, heavily influenced by our existing schemas.

When we recall an event, we retrieve the main details, and our schemas fill in the gaps or 'smooth out' the story to make it logical and consistent with what we already know. This leads to distortion.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Students often confuse reconstruction with simple forgetting. Reconstruction means the memory changes because of *active processing* (schemas), not just because time passed.

3.2 The Application: Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)

EWT refers to the evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime or accident. Because memory is reconstructive, EWT is highly susceptible to error.

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of EWT

The accuracy of a memory can be easily altered by events that occur after the initial observation.

1. Leading Questions

A question that, due to the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.

Classic Study: Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated how changing a single word affects recall.

• Participants watched a car crash video.
• They were asked to estimate the speed when the cars either "smashed," "collided," "bumped," "hit," or "contacted."
• Those given the verb "smashed" estimated significantly higher speeds and were more likely to later report seeing broken glass (even though there was none).

The leading question (e.g., using "smashed") activates a more severe schema, distorting the original memory.

2. Post-Event Discussion (PED)

Memory can be contaminated if co-witnesses discuss the event afterwards.

• Witnesses may combine information from others into their own memory (called memory conformity).
• They might genuinely believe the newly acquired information was part of their original experience.

3. Anxiety and Weapon Focus

The high stress and anxiety often experienced during a violent crime can affect recall accuracy. The results here are complex:

• High Anxiety = Poor Recall: Extreme anxiety can narrow attention, focusing only on the central, terrifying detail (like a weapon). This is known as Weapon Focus.
• Weapon Focus Effect: The presence of a weapon causes witnesses to focus all their attention on the weapon itself, severely reducing their ability to recall other details about the scene or the perpetrator's appearance.

Analogy: Imagine seeing a bear in your garden. You will remember the bear and the sheer terror, but you probably won't remember the colour of the neighbour's house next door. Your attention is focused entirely on the threat.

Did you know?

The term "cognitive revolution" refers to the shift in psychology in the 1950s away from purely behavioural science, allowing researchers to study internal processes scientifically, often using computer models as inspiration.