History | 1D: South Africa, 1948–2014

📚 Study Notes: South Africa, 1948–2014 📚

Welcome! This chapter is incredibly important for understanding modern political transformation. South Africa’s history from 1948 to 2014 is a story of extreme oppression, fierce resistance, eventual liberation, and the complex challenges of building a new nation.

Because this is a **Breadth Study**, you need to understand the big picture—the long-term trends, causes, consequences, and changes over time. We will break down this challenging 66-year period step-by-step. Let’s get started!

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Phase 1: The Establishment of Apartheid (1948–1959)

The foundation of institutional racism was laid when the National Party (NP), representing Afrikaner nationalism, won the 1948 election.

Key Concept: What is Apartheid?

The word Apartheid means ‘separateness’ in Afrikaans. It was not just segregation (which already existed); it was a systematic, legal framework designed to ensure white minority control politically, economically, and socially.

💡 Analogy: Think of Apartheid as a set of rules for a large sports field. Before 1948, the field was already unfair, but after 1948, the government wrote down specific, legal rules that ensured only one team (white people) could ever own the stadium, sit in the best seats, or even touch the same ball as the other teams (black, coloured, and Indian people).

The Pillars of Apartheid Legislation

The NP quickly passed laws to categorize and control every aspect of life. You must know these core acts:

• Population Registration Act (1950): Classified every South African into a racial group (White, Coloured, Asian, or Bantu/Black). This was the foundation upon which all other laws rested.
• Group Areas Act (1950): Designated specific areas for specific racial groups to live and own land. This led to forced removals of millions of non-white people from desirable urban centres. (Example: Sophiatown was destroyed.)
• Immorality Act (1950) & Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949): Outlawed sexual relations and marriage between races.
• Pass Laws Act (1952): Made it compulsory for black Africans to carry a reference book (pass) at all times to prove their right to be in a 'white' area. Failure to produce it meant immediate arrest. This was the most despised law.
• Bantu Education Act (1953): Separated the education system, ensuring black students received inferior schooling designed to limit their job prospects to unskilled labour.

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Phase 2: Rising Resistance and Brutal Repression (1960s)

The 1960s marked the end of peaceful resistance and the beginning of a highly repressive security state.

The Split in Resistance

The primary resistance group was the African National Congress (ANC), which favoured non-racial, multi-pronged protest (influenced by figures like Nelson Mandela).

A breakaway group, the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), emerged in 1959. Led by Robert Sobukwe, the PAC championed a more Africanist, direct approach, often critical of the ANC’s multiracialism.

The Sharpeville Massacre (1960)

The PAC launched an anti-Pass Law demonstration on March 21, 1960, in Sharpeville. Police opened fire on the unarmed crowd, killing 69 people.

This event was a massive turning point:

• The government declared a State of Emergency.
• The ANC and PAC were immediately banned, forcing them underground.
• International condemnation began to grow.

🧩 Memory Trick: Sharpeville (1960) = Switch. It switched resistance from non-violence to armed struggle.

The Shift to Armed Struggle

After Sharpeville, Nelson Mandela and others concluded that peaceful protest was impossible. They established Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning 'Spear of the Nation,' the armed wing of the ANC, committing to sabotage against state infrastructure.

The Rivonia Trial (1963–1964)

MK leaders, including Nelson Mandela, were arrested at their hideout in Rivonia. They were charged with sabotage and conspiring to overthrow the government.

Mandela famously delivered his "I am prepared to die" speech from the dock, explaining the justification for armed resistance. The outcome was a life sentence for Mandela and other key leaders, effectively decapitating the resistance movement for two decades.

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Phase 3: The Crisis Years and Failed Reform (1970s–1980s)

Despite the arrests, internal resistance did not disappear. It re-emerged under a new banner, challenging the psychological foundations of Apartheid.

Black Consciousness and Steve Biko

In the late 1960s and 1970s, the **Black Consciousness Movement (BCM)**, led by the charismatic student activist **Steve Biko**, became prominent.

The BCM focused less on political organisation (which was illegal) and more on *psychological liberation*. It taught black people to reject the notion of inferiority ingrained by Apartheid and to take pride in their identity.

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first: Biko argued that even well-meaning white liberals distracted from the core struggle. His message was: "Black man, you are on your own."

The Soweto Uprising (1976)

This was a spontaneous, youth-led revolt against the educational policies of the NP.

The trigger: The government mandated that half of all subjects, including Mathematics and Social Studies, must be taught in **Afrikaans** (the language of the oppressor).

On June 16, 1976, thousands of students marched in Soweto. Police responded with live ammunition, killing high school students. The iconic image of Hector Pieterson (a 13-year-old shot dead) horrified the world.

Consequences of Soweto:

• It shattered the illusion of stability held since the 1960s.
• A new generation of highly radicalised youth emerged.
• Hundreds of young activists fled into exile, swelling the ranks of the ANC/MK abroad.
• Increased international economic pressure (boycotts).

P.W. Botha and 'Total Strategy' (1978–1989)

Faced with internal revolt and external Cold War threats, Prime Minister P.W. Botha adopted a policy called **Total Strategy**.

This involved:

1. Total National Security: Massive increase in military and police power to crush internal dissent.
2. Limited Reform ('Adapt or Die'): Minor changes (e.g., repealing the Pass Laws in 1986, creating a Tricameral Parliament).

However, these reforms were doomed to fail because they maintained the core principle of segregation and absolutely excluded the African majority from power. By the mid-1980s, large parts of the black townships were effectively ungovernable due to political violence.

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Phase 4: Transition to Democracy (1990–1994)

By the late 1980s, the regime knew it couldn't win the war. The economy was collapsing under sanctions, and the military costs were unsustainable.

F.W. de Klerk and the Negotiation Phase

When F.W. de Klerk replaced Botha as President in 1989, he chose to negotiate rather than fight to the bitter end. His motives were based on pragmatism—saving the economy and avoiding a full-scale civil war.

The Shock Announcements (February 1990):

• Unbanning of the ANC, PAC, and SACP (Communist Party).
• Suspension of the death penalty.
• Release of Nelson Mandela after 27 years in prison.

The Road to the 1994 Election

The negotiation period (1990–1994) was extremely volatile, marked by intense political violence (often state-sponsored violence aimed at destabilising the ANC).

The main talks, known as **CODESA** (Convention for a Democratic South Africa), led to an interim constitution and agreement on the principle of 'one person, one vote.'

The first fully democratic, non-racial election was held in April 1994. The ANC won overwhelmingly, and Nelson Mandela became the first democratically elected President.

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Phase 5: Post-Apartheid South Africa (1994–2014)

The new government faced the immense task of reversing 46 years of legislative damage and hundreds of years of colonial/segregationist history.

Nelson Mandela: Reconciliation (1994–1999)

Mandela’s presidency focused heavily on national unity and reconciliation.

The most significant act was the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), chaired by Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

• The TRC was not a court seeking vengeance, but a mechanism for healing.
• Perpetrators of Apartheid-era human rights abuses could confess publicly in exchange for amnesty (freedom from prosecution).
• The TRC exposed the horrors of the past and sought to provide closure for victims.

Thabo Mbeki: The Search for Economic Growth (1999–2008)

Mbeki, Mandela’s successor, focused on economic stability and projecting South Africa as the leading African power.

*Economic Policy:* Mbeki adopted the **Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR)** strategy, favouring market liberalization and fiscal discipline. This succeeded in achieving high levels of economic growth in the early 2000s.

*Controversies:* Mbeki’s tenure was marred by controversy, particularly his highly criticized response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which involved denying the link between HIV and AIDS and limiting access to necessary drugs.

Jacob Zuma: Instability and Challenges (2009–2014)

Jacob Zuma took power following an internal ANC power struggle against Mbeki.

While the ANC continued to dominate politically, the Zuma era (leading up to 2014) was increasingly defined by:

• Corruption: Widespread allegations of corruption, leading to political instability and distrust in the government.
• Economic Stagnation: Economic growth slowed significantly, exacerbating high unemployment rates.
• Service Delivery Protests: Increased public dissatisfaction and protests over the slow delivery of basic services (housing, electricity, water).

The Lingering Socio-Economic Challenge (1994–2014)

Despite political freedom, the most persistent problem remained the vast gap in wealth and opportunity created by Apartheid. By 2014, South Africa was still one of the most unequal societies globally. Challenges included:

• Land ownership imbalances.
• Massive housing shortages in urban areas.
• High youth unemployment.

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🏆 You have successfully navigated the key events and trends of South Africa’s modern history! Remember to use these notes to analyse sources and evaluate arguments about cause and consequence. Keep up the excellent work!