History | 1C: Germany: United, Divided and Reunited, 1870–1990

Welcome to Germany: United, Divided, and Reunited (1870–1990)

Hello Historians! This chapter is a fascinating journey through 120 years of German history—a period defined by sudden unification, catastrophic wars, deep division, and ultimate reunification.

Think of German history between 1870 and 1990 as a dramatic, multi-act play:

• Act 1: The Empire (Strong, but rigid, 1870-1918)
• Act 2: Crisis and Dictatorship (Fragile democracy followed by totalitarian terror, 1918-1945)
• Act 3: The Split (Two opposing systems facing off during the Cold War, 1945-1989)
• Act 4: The Reunion (The wall comes down, 1989-1990)

Understanding these dramatic shifts is key to mastering the thematic study. Don't worry if this seems like a lot of change—we will break it down step-by-step!

Section 1: The Rise of the German Empire (The Second Reich, 1870–1918)

1.1 Unification and Bismarck's Power (1870–1890)

Germany was not a unified country until 1871. It was a collection of independent states, dominated by the powerful, militaristic state of Prussia.

The Architect of Unification: Otto von Bismarck

Bismarck, the Prussian Minister-President, used a policy known as "Blood and Iron"—meaning war and military strength—to unite Germany. The final key event was the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71).

• The victory allowed Bismarck to convince the southern German states to join the North German Confederation.
• In January 1871, Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned Emperor of the newly unified Germany (the Second Reich) in Versailles.

Bismarck's Domestic Challenges: The Balancing Act

Once unified, Bismarck had to manage deep internal divisions:

1. The Catholic Threat (Kulturkampf, 1871–78): Bismarck (a Lutheran Protestant) feared the loyalty of German Catholics, particularly those supporting the Centre Party (Zentrum). The Kulturkampf ("Culture Struggle") involved laws trying to restrict Catholic influence. Key Takeaway: It failed and actually strengthened the Centre Party!

2. The Socialist Threat (Social Democratic Party - SPD): Bismarck feared the revolutionary ideas of the growing working-class movement (the SPD).

• Repression: He passed Anti-Socialist Laws (banning meetings and newspapers).
• The 'Carrot' (State Socialism): He simultaneously introduced pioneering state welfare laws (health insurance, accident insurance, old-age pensions) to keep workers loyal to the state, not the socialists.

1.2 The Era of Wilhelm II and Decline (1890–1918)

In 1890, the new Kaiser, Wilhelm II, dismissed Bismarck. Wilhelm wanted to rule himself and pursue a much more aggressive foreign policy.

The Shift to Weltpolitik

Wilhelm II abandoned Bismarck's cautious, European-focused foreign policy (which aimed to keep France isolated). Instead, he pursued Weltpolitik (World Policy).

• This aimed to make Germany a global power equal to Britain and France.
• It required a huge naval build-up (the Naval Laws), which directly challenged Britain's dominance at sea and fueled the arms race before WWI.

Key Takeaway for Section 1: Germany entered WWI in 1914 as an economic giant but a politically rigid and unstable state, dominated by military elites (*Junkers*) and the Kaiser, leading directly to its eventual defeat and collapse in 1918.

Section 2: Crisis and Collapse (1918–1945)

2.1 The Troubled Birth of the Weimar Republic (1918–1929)

After defeat in WWI, Kaiser Wilhelm II fled. Germany became a democratic republic, known as the Weimar Republic (named after the city where the constitution was written).

Structural Weaknesses and Crises

The Republic faced huge problems from birth, leading many conservative elites to call them the "November Criminals" for signing the armistice.

• Treaty of Versailles (1919): Germany lost territory, was forced to accept war guilt (Article 231), and pay massive reparations. This was deeply humiliating and undermined Weimar from day one.
• Instability: The voting system (Proportional Representation) meant too many small parties gained seats, making it difficult to form stable governments.
• Article 48: This notorious clause allowed the President to rule by decree in an emergency—a massive loophole later exploited by Hitler.

The Hyperinflation Crisis (1923)

In 1923, France occupied the Ruhr industrial area after Germany failed to pay reparations. The government printed vast amounts of money to support striking workers, leading to hyperinflation.

Analogy: Imagine a loaf of bread costing 1 mark in the morning, and 1 million marks by nightfall. The currency became completely worthless, destroying the savings of the middle class and increasing resentment towards the Republic.

The Golden Age (1924–1929)

Under Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann, Germany stabilized:

• New currency (Rentenmark) stopped hyperinflation.
• The Dawes Plan (1924) reorganized reparation payments based on US loans.
• Germany gained international prestige (Locarno Treaties, League of Nations membership).

2.2 The Collapse of Democracy and the Nazi State (1929–1945)

The Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the Golden Age. The US recalled its loans, plunging Germany into the Great Depression, characterized by mass unemployment.

The Rise of Hitler

The Depression radicalized voters, pushing them towards extremist parties: the Communists (KPD) and the Nazis (NSDAP).

• Hitler offered simple answers, scapegoating Jews and Communists, and promising to restore national pride lost at Versailles.
• Using legal means (Article 48, manipulating the political chaos), Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January 1933.

Establishing the Totalitarian State

The Nazi regime rapidly dismantled democracy, a process known as Gleichschaltung (co-ordination), meaning all aspects of German life were forced to conform to Nazi ideology.

• The Enabling Act (1933): Gave Hitler the power to pass laws without the Reichstag, effectively ending democracy.
• Terror: Use of the SS and Gestapo, establishment of concentration camps for political opponents.
• Ideology: Emphasis on the 'Aryan Master Race' and fierce anti-Semitism (e.g., the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 stripped Jews of citizenship).

Did you know? The Nazi Party never won an absolute majority in a truly free election. Hitler took power by exploiting political maneuvering and existing constitutional weaknesses.

Key Takeaway for Section 2: Weimar failed because it faced simultaneous internal and external crises (Treaty, economic collapse, political violence), which Hitler expertly exploited, creating a state defined by total control, militarism, and persecution.

Section 3: Division and the Cold War (1945–1989)

3.1 Post-War Occupation and the Iron Curtain

After Germany's defeat in 1945, it was occupied and divided into four zones by the Allied powers: USA, USSR, Britain, and France. Berlin, located deep within the Soviet zone, was also split.

As the Cold War escalated, the temporary zones hardened into permanent states:

• Federal Republic of Germany (FRG): West Germany (Capitalist, Democratic, aligned with the West/NATO).
• German Democratic Republic (GDR): East Germany (Communist, Totalitarian, aligned with the Soviet Union/Warsaw Pact).

The First Major Crisis: The Berlin Blockade (1948–49)

The Soviet Union cut off all land access to West Berlin. The Allies responded with the Berlin Airlift, supplying the city by air for nearly a year. This confrontation confirmed the deep division of Germany.

3.2 Two Germanys: Contrasting Paths

The two Germanies developed along radically different economic and political lines:

West Germany (FRG)

• Economic Miracle (Wirtschaftswunder): Supported by US aid (Marshall Plan), the FRG rapidly rebuilt its industrial base, achieving astonishing economic growth under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.
• Political Stability: Established a stable, multi-party democracy (known as the Basic Law).

East Germany (GDR)

• Stagnation: The Soviet Union extracted resources, and the centralized, planned economy struggled.
• Totalitarian Control: Ruled by the SED (Socialist Unity Party) and maintained control through the pervasive secret police, the Stasi.

3.3 The Berlin Wall and Détente

By 1961, millions of skilled workers were fleeing the repressive, poor GDR for the prosperous FRG via the open border in Berlin (known as "Voting with their Feet").

In August 1961, the GDR built the Berlin Wall to stop this drain of talent, symbolizing the ultimate physical division of Germany and the Cold War itself.

Ostpolitik (Willy Brandt)

In the late 1960s, West German Chancellor Willy Brandt pursued Ostpolitik ("Eastern Policy").

• Aim: To reduce tension by establishing links and recognition with the GDR and the Soviet Bloc.
• Effect: While controversial, it led to treaties and better communication, making division slightly more manageable, though still permanent-seeming.

Key Takeaway for Section 3: Germany became the crucial flashpoint of the Cold War. The FRG embraced capitalism and democracy and thrived; the GDR enforced communism and repression, struggling economically and relying on the Wall and the Stasi to survive.

Section 4: The Road to Reunification (1989–1990)

4.1 The Collapse of the GDR

The GDR was economically failing and politically bankrupt by the late 1980s, but the catalyst for change came from the Soviet Union itself.

Gorbachev and the Domino Effect

Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced reforms (Perestroika - economic restructuring, and Glasnost - openness) and crucially signaled that the USSR would no longer use force to prop up Eastern European communist regimes (sometimes called the Sinatra Doctrine, meaning countries could "do it their way").

The Triggers of Change (1989)

1. Mass Exodus: Thousands of East Germans attempted to flee (especially after Hungary opened its border to Austria in summer 1989).
2. Peaceful Protests: Huge weekly protests erupted across the GDR, notably in Leipzig, chanting "Wir sind das Volk!" (We are the people!).
3. Leadership Paralysis: The hardline East German regime was abandoned by the USSR and couldn't contain the protests.

4.2 The Fall of the Wall and Unity

On 9 November 1989, due to a confused press conference and mounting public pressure, East German border guards unexpectedly opened the checkpoints in the Berlin Wall.

• This moment became the iconic symbol of the Cold War's end.
• The Wall was quickly dismantled by jubilant citizens (the *Mauerspechte*—wall peckers).

The Process of Reunification (1990)

West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl pushed for quick reunification. The international community (especially the US) supported it, though Britain and France were initially cautious, fearing a new powerful Germany.

• The Two Plus Four Treaty (involving the two Germanys plus the four occupying powers—USA, USSR, UK, France) settled the final terms, guaranteeing Germany’s sovereignty and agreeing that Germany would remain a member of NATO.
• Official reunification occurred on 3 October 1990.

Key Takeaway for Section 4: The collapse of the Soviet Union's resolve (Gorbachev) combined with massive internal protest and economic failure led to the fall of the Wall and rapid, peaceful reunification, concluding the dramatic 120-year cycle of unity, division, and reunion.

Mastery Checklist: Key Historical Concepts

To succeed in the Thematic Study section, ensure you can define and link these major concepts across the period:

• Totalitarianism: Compare the level of state control under Wilhelm II, Hitler (extreme), and the GDR (Stasi).
• Democracy: Contrast the unstable and weak Weimar democracy with the stable, Western-aligned democracy of the FRG.
• Economic Change: Compare Bismarck's industrial boom, Weimar's hyperinflation, the Nazi war economy, and the FRG's *Wirtschaftswunder*.
• Foreign Policy: Contrast Bismarck's containment, Wilhelm II's *Weltpolitik*, and Brandt's *Ostpolitik*.

Good luck with your studies—you've covered a vast and incredibly important period of history!