History | 1C: Germany, 1918–45

Welcome to Germany, 1918–1945: Study Notes

Hello future historian! This chapter is one of the most dramatic and important stories you will study. We are moving from a chaotic, defeated Germany attempting to build a democracy (the Weimar Republic) to the rise of one of the most brutal dictatorships in history (Nazi Germany). Don't worry if this seems like a lot—we will break down the events step-by-step, focusing on cause and effect.

Why is this important? Understanding how a sophisticated European country could collapse into dictatorship teaches us vital lessons about democracy, economic crisis, and the power of propaganda.

Part I: The Weimar Republic (1918–1929) – The Troubled Birth of Democracy

The Foundation and the Stigma of Defeat (1918–1919)

In November 1918, Germany lost World War I. The Kaiser abdicated (stepped down), and Germany’s democratic government, led by Friedrich Ebert, was declared. This new system was known as the Weimar Republic (named after the town where the constitution was formally signed).

The 'Stab-in-the-Back' Myth (Dolchstoßlegende):

• Many former soldiers and right-wing groups refused to accept Germany had truly lost the war.
• They claimed the army had been "stabbed in the back" by politicians (the November Criminals) who signed the armistice and created the Republic.
• This powerful myth immediately undermined the legitimacy of the new democratic government.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919) – The Unbearable Burden

The TofV was signed in June 1919, officially ending the war. The Weimar government was forced to sign it, making them look weak and guilty.

The Germans called it a Diktat (a dictated peace) because they were not allowed to negotiate the terms. The terms were harsh and crippling:

Memory Aid: Think of the acronym BRAT to remember the terms:

1. Blame: Germany had to accept War Guilt (Article 231).
2. Reparations: Germany had to pay massive fines (later set at £6.6 billion).
3. Army: Severely restricted (100,000 men, no air force, small navy).
4. Territory: Large amounts of land lost (e.g., Alsace-Lorraine, Polish Corridor), and the Rhineland was demilitarised.

Key Takeaway: The TofV created intense bitterness and economic strain, which fueled political instability for the next decade.

Challenges to the Republic (1919–1923)

The Weimar Republic faced threats from both the extreme Left (Communists/Spartacists) and the extreme Right (Nationalists/Fascists).

• Left-Wing Threat (1919): The Spartacist Uprising in Berlin was crushed by the army and paramilitary groups called the Freikorps.
• Right-Wing Threat (1920): The Kapp Putsch (an attempted coup by the Freikorps and right-wing elements) briefly took over Berlin but failed due to a general strike by Weimar loyalists.

The Hyperinflation Crisis (1923):

• When Germany failed to pay reparations, France occupied the industrial Ruhr region.
• The Weimar government told the Ruhr workers to passively resist (go on strike) but promised to keep paying them.
• To pay the workers, the government printed massive amounts of money.
• Analogy: Imagine trying to solve a debt problem by constantly printing more banknotes. The more you print, the less valuable each note becomes.
• The result was Hyperinflation: Money became worthless. Prices soared—a loaf of bread cost 428 billion marks! Savings were wiped out, hitting the middle class particularly hard, making them resent the Republic even more.

The "Golden Age" of Stresemann (1924–1929)

Between 1924 and 1929, Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann achieved relative stability and prosperity.

Economic Stability:

• He introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark (later Reichsmark), halting hyperinflation.
• The Dawes Plan (1924): The US loaned money to Germany to help pay reparations. This was like getting a big cash injection, allowing industry to rebuild.

Foreign Policy Successes:

• Locarno Treaties (1925): Germany accepted its western borders, leading to better relations with France and Belgium.
• League of Nations (1926): Germany was allowed to join the League, showing it was accepted back into the international community.

Did you know? Stresemann won the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in reconciliation.

Part II: Crisis and Collapse (1929–1933) – The End of Democracy

The Great Depression and its Impact (1929–1932)

Stresemann's "Golden Age" ended abruptly with the Wall Street Crash in October 1929.

Why was Germany hit so hard?

• The US demanded the immediate repayment of the Dawes Plan loans.
• German industry lost its funding overnight. Factories closed, banks failed.
• Unemployment soared to 6 million by 1932 (40% of the working population).

The Depression turned the public away from the moderate democratic parties.

Political Paralysis

The economic crisis required quick, decisive action, but the Weimar government was stuck in deadlock.

• Coalition governments (made up of many different parties) couldn't agree on how to deal with the debt (e.g., cutting unemployment benefits vs. raising taxes).
• The Reichstag (parliament) became useless.
• President Paul von Hindenburg relied heavily on Article 48 (the emergency decree clause) to allow Chancellors to rule without consulting parliament. This effectively ended democracy before Hitler even took power.

The Rise of Extremism

As desperation grew, voters turned to the simple, radical promises of the extreme parties:

• The Communist Party (KPD): Promised revolution and workers' paradise.
• The Nazi Party (NSDAP): Led by Adolf Hitler. Promised to abolish the TofV, smash communism, restore national pride, and create jobs.

The Nazis used violent street fighting (via their private army, the SA – Sturmabteilung / Brownshirts) against the Communists, presenting themselves as the party of law and order against the communist threat.

The Appointment of Hitler (January 1933)

Despite their popularity, the Nazis never won an outright majority in a free election.

• In 1932, the Nazis won the most seats, but Hindenburg hated Hitler.
• Key conservatives, particularly former Chancellor Franz von Papen, convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933.
• The plan was to control Hitler; Papen believed he could use the Nazis' popularity but keep Hitler locked in a cabinet dominated by traditional politicians. Papen famously said: "We have hired him."

In simple terms: The traditional elites mistakenly believed they could manage Hitler. They opened the door, thinking they could close it whenever they wanted.

Part III: The Consolidation of Power (1933–1934) – The Creation of the Führer State

Once appointed, Hitler swiftly moved to dismantle the democratic structure of Germany and establish a totalitarian state. This process took less than two years.

Step-by-Step to Dictatorship:

1. The Reichstag Fire (February 1933): A week before a major election, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Hitler blamed a young Dutch Communist (though the truth is debated).
2. The Emergency Decree: Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree. This suspended all major civil rights (freedom of speech, assembly, privacy) and allowed the Nazis to arrest political opponents (especially Communists) instantly.
3. The Enabling Act (March 1933): This was the legal end of democracy. It allowed Hitler and his cabinet to pass laws without the approval of the Reichstag or the President. It was passed largely because the arrested Communist deputies couldn't vote, and the remaining parties were intimidated.
4. Banning of Trade Unions and Parties (1933): All other political parties were banned. Germany became a one-party state.
5. The Night of the Long Knives (June 1934): Hitler eliminated potential internal threats. The main target was the leader of the SA, Ernst Röhm, who commanded over 4 million men and was pushing for a socialist revolution. Hitler used the SS (Schutzstaffel) to murder Röhm and hundreds of other SA leaders and political opponents. This cemented the power of the SS and secured the loyalty of the regular army (Wehrmacht).
6. Death of Hindenburg (August 1934): When President Hindenburg died, Hitler immediately merged the offices of Chancellor and President, declaring himself Führer (Leader).

Memory Trick (Consolidation): Think F.E.E.N.D. (Fire, Emergency, Enabling, Night, Death). This sequence shows how Hitler quickly built his dictatorship.

Part IV: Life in Nazi Germany (1934–1939) – Terror and Conformity

The Nazi state was built on two main pillars: control through Terror and control through Propaganda/Indoctrination.

The Apparatus of Terror

The police state was controlled by Heinrich Himmler and the SS (an elite, racially pure paramilitary organisation).

• The Gestapo: The secret police. They were not numerous, but the public believed they were everywhere, spying on people. This fear of being denounced led to huge levels of self-censorship and conformity.
• Concentration Camps: Initially established to hold political opponents (Communists, Socialists, trade union leaders) after 1933. They were run by the SS.
• The Law Courts: Were controlled and politicised. Judges had to swear loyalty to Hitler.

Propaganda and Control

Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, ensured the Nazi message was inescapable.

• Censorship: All media (newspapers, radio, film) was controlled. Books deemed 'un-German' were burned.
• The Hitler Myth: Goebbels created the image of Hitler as a flawless, heroic figure, saving Germany from the economic crisis and communism.
• Mass Rallies: Events like the Nuremberg Rallies demonstrated the power and unity of the Nazi state.

Social Policies: Shaping the Volk (The People)

The Nazis aimed to create a unified, racially pure 'National Community' (Volksgemeinschaft).

Workers and the Economy:

• Trade unions were banned and replaced by the German Labour Front (DAF).
• Workers lost the right to strike or negotiate wages.
• The Strength Through Joy (KdF) movement offered leisure activities (cheap holidays, cruises) to keep workers content and loyal.
• Unemployment fell drastically due to massive public works (autobahns) and Rearmament (breaking the TofV).

Women:

• Women were encouraged to follow the 3 Ks: Kinder, Küche, Kirche (Children, Kitchen, Church).
• Loans and medals (the Mother’s Cross) were given to women who had many children.
• They were pushed out of professional jobs (doctors, lawyers) to make room for men and focus on producing racially pure Aryan children.

Youth and Education:

• Education was indoctrinated. Curricula focused on Nazi ideology, race theory, and military subjects.
• The Hitler Youth (HJ) was compulsory for boys (ages 14-18), training them physically and mentally for war.
• The goal was to ensure absolute loyalty to the Führer over family and traditional institutions.

Racial Persecution

The Nazis believed in the superiority of the Aryan Master Race and targeted groups deemed 'untermenschen' (sub-human), primarily Jews, Slavs, Roma people, and those with disabilities.

Persecution of the Jews:

• This was a slow, systematic process starting with boycotts and minor laws, which escalated severely in 1935.
• The Nuremberg Laws (1935): These laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship and banned marriage or sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews. This legally defined Jews as separate and inferior.
• Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass, November 1938): A wave of state-sponsored violence across Germany, where synagogues were burned and Jewish businesses were smashed. This marked a severe escalation toward systematic violence.

Part V: Germany at War (1939–1945) – Decline and Destruction

The Start of War and Initial Successes (1939–1941)

The invasion of Poland in September 1939 began the war. Germany experienced huge initial success using Blitzkrieg ('Lightning War') tactics, quickly conquering much of Western Europe and seeming unstoppable.

Shifting Fortunes and Total War (1941–1943)

The turning point came when Germany failed to defeat the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) and declared war on the USA.

• Stalingrad (1942–43): This catastrophic defeat was the first major loss for the German army and shattered the image of invincibility.
• Total War: Goebbels declared 'Total War' in 1943. This meant all resources, factories, and people were dedicated only to the war effort. Non-essential activities were shut down.
• Allied Bombing: Allied forces began massive bombing campaigns against German cities (e.g., Hamburg, Dresden), causing huge loss of life and destroying morale.

Opposition and Resistance

Although terror made open resistance dangerous, groups and individuals did resist:

• Youth Groups: The Edelweiss Pirates resisted Nazi conformity and occasionally engaged in sabotage. The White Rose Group (led by Hans and Sophie Scholl) distributed anti-Nazi leaflets before being executed in 1943.
• The July Bomb Plot (1944): A small group of army officers, led by Colonel von Stauffenberg, attempted to assassinate Hitler. The bomb failed to kill him, and the conspirators were brutally executed. This reinforced Hitler’s paranoia.

The Final Solution and The Holocaust

As the war continued, Nazi persecution of Jews intensified into state-sponsored genocide (the Holocaust).

• In occupied territories, Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing squads) followed the army and executed millions of Jews, Slavs, and others via mass shootings.
• Wannsee Conference (January 1942): Top Nazi officials met and formalised the plan for the systematic extermination of the Jewish population of Europe—the Final Solution.
• This plan resulted in the construction and operation of dedicated extermination camps (Auschwitz, Treblinka) where people were murdered in gas chambers.

Defeat (1945)

By early 1945, Germany was being invaded from both East (Soviets) and West (Allies). Berlin fell, Hitler committed suicide, and Germany surrendered in May 1945, bringing the Third Reich to a brutal end after 12 years.

Key Takeaway: The war started with euphoria but ended in total destruction, leaving behind a legacy of unparalleled suffering and devastation.