History | 1B: The World in Crisis 1879–1945

Welcome to Chapter 1B: The World in Crisis 1879–1945

Hello future historians! This chapter is incredibly important. You are diving into 66 years of intense global conflict, instability, and transformation—the period where the old empires collapsed and the modern world took shape. This is the heart of your International Study unit.

Don't worry if the sheer number of wars and treaties seems overwhelming. We will break down this era of crisis into digestible steps, focusing on **cause and effect** and, crucially, **how historians interpret** these events.

What We Will Achieve:

• Understand the long-term causes of the First World War.
• Analyze the failure of peace efforts (like the League of Nations).
• Trace the rise of aggressive dictatorships and the return to global conflict.
• Evaluate different historical perspectives on who was responsible for the crises.

Section 1: The Long Fuse – Setting the Stage for War (1879–1914)

The first major crisis was not a sudden burst; it was a slow build-up of tensions across Europe. Think of this period as packing too much flammable material into a small room.

1. The Roots of Conflict: M.A.I.N.

A simple mnemonic to remember the long-term causes of WWI is M.A.I.N.

• Militarism: An arms race developed, especially between Britain (naval dominance) and Germany. The belief that military strength was the only measure of national greatness.
• Alliances: Europe divided into two hostile camps.
• Imperialism: Competition for colonies, resources, and prestige across Africa and Asia (The New Imperialism). This created friction between the Great Powers.
• Nationalism: Intense patriotism and the belief that one’s nation (or ethnic group, like the Serbs in the Balkans) should be superior and independent.

2. The Alliance System

This system was meant to keep the peace, but it actually ensured that if one country fought, everyone would be dragged in. It was a giant, complicated domino effect waiting to happen.

• Triple Alliance (Central Powers): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (though Italy later switched sides).
• Triple Entente (Allied Powers): France, Britain, Russia.

Key German Policy: Under Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany adopted Weltpolitik (World Policy)—an aggressive, assertive foreign policy aimed at making Germany a dominant global power, which greatly alarmed Britain and France.

Section 2: The Great War and the Unstable Peace (1914–1929)

1. The Spark and the War (1914)

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914, was the trigger. Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which quickly led to declarations of war by the Entente powers due to the rigid alliance treaties.

2. The Treaty of Versailles (1919)

This treaty officially ended WWI, but many historians argue it was the single biggest cause of future conflict. It was dictated primarily by the victorious powers (the USA, Britain, and France) and designed to punish Germany severely. This led to deep German resentment (known as the "stab in the back" myth).

• Territorial Losses: Germany lost land, including Alsace-Lorraine and colonies.
• Military Restrictions: Army limited to 100,000 men; no air force or submarines; Rhineland demilitarized.
• Reparations: Germany had to pay massive sums of money (Reparations) to the Allies for war damages.
• War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Germany was forced to accept sole blame for starting the war.

3. The Hope for Peace: The League of Nations

The League of Nations was US President Woodrow Wilson's idea, aiming for collective security—the idea that nations would work together to stop any aggressor.

The problem? The League was fatally flawed from the start:

• The USA never joined (due to its policy of Isolationism).
• It had no standing army and relied on moral pressure and sanctions, which often failed against determined dictators.

Key Takeaway: The Treaty of Versailles created deep, lasting grievances, and the institution meant to uphold the peace (the League) was too weak to enforce it.

Section 3: The Interwar Years – Crisis Deepens (1929–1939)

The period between the wars saw democratic governments struggle and aggressive ideologies flourish.

1. The Global Economic Shock: The Great Depression (1929)

The Wall Street Crash in the US triggered a worldwide economic collapse. This crisis had three critical political effects:

1. It discredited democratic governments seen as unable to solve unemployment and poverty.
2. It made countries focused on internal problems (Isolationism in the US, economic collapse in Britain). This meant they were unwilling to commit resources to global policing.
3. It fueled the rise of extremist parties promising quick, aggressive solutions.

2. The Rise of Aggressive Dictatorships

Totalitarian regimes appeared, determined to overturn the Versailles settlement and expand their power.

• Italy (Fascism): Benito Mussolini was a pioneer of Fascism—a far-right ideology based on extreme nationalism, militarism, and rejection of democracy. He sought to rebuild the glory of the Roman Empire.
• Germany (Nazism): Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933. He openly aimed to destroy the Treaty of Versailles, rearm Germany, and conquer Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe.
• Japan (Militarism): Led by military leaders, Japan aggressively sought natural resources and an empire in Asia.

Section 4: The Failure of Collective Security and the Path to WWII

The 1930s saw a clear pattern: aggressors took increasingly risky steps, and the League/major democracies failed to stop them. This encouraged more aggression.

1. Key Failures of the League

• Manchuria (1931): Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria. The League condemned the action but imposed no meaningful sanctions. Japan simply withdrew from the League.
• Abyssinia (1935): Italy invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Britain and France tried half-hearted sanctions that failed to include oil (because they feared war or losing Mussolini as an ally against Hitler).

2. Hitler's Calculated Risks and Appeasement

Hitler methodically broke the terms of Versailles:

1935: Introduced conscription (military service).

1936: Remilitarized the Rhineland (the German area bordering France that was supposed to be weapon-free).

1938: Anschluss (Union) with Austria.

The Western Powers (Britain and France) adopted a policy of Appeasement—giving in to Hitler's demands in the hope that he would eventually be satisfied and avoid a larger war.

Why did they appease him?

• Fear of another huge war (memories of WWI were fresh).
• Economic pressures (they couldn’t afford rearmament).
• Some sympathy: Many believed the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh, and Hitler’s demands (like incorporating German speakers) were sometimes viewed as reasonable.

3. The Munich Crisis and the Final Step (1938–1939)

Hitler demanded the Sudetenland (a German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia). At the Munich Conference, Britain (Chamberlain) and France agreed to let Hitler take the territory. Chamberlain famously returned claiming he had achieved "Peace for our time."

Hitler then immediately broke his promise and seized the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. This proved Appeasement was a failure.

The final trigger was the Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939), where Hitler and Stalin agreed to divide Poland. When Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain and France finally declared war.

Key Takeaway: The crisis intensified rapidly because the major democracies prioritized peace and economic stability over confronting aggressors, inadvertently convincing the dictators that they could get away with anything.

Section 5: World War II and the Final Outcome (1939–1945)

WWII was a truly global conflict that resulted from the accumulated failures of the previous decades. The crisis ended only with the total defeat of the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) and the collapse of the old European-dominated world order.

• 1941: The war became truly global with the German invasion of the USSR and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, bringing the USA into the war.
• The End: The defeat of Germany in May 1945 and the surrender of Japan in August 1945 (following the use of atomic bombs).

The outcome led directly to the Cold War (1945 onwards) and the establishment of the United Nations, a system designed explicitly to avoid the catastrophic failures of the League of Nations.

Section 6: Historical Interpretations (The Core of Your Study)

In this section of the curriculum, you must not only know *what* happened but also understand *why* historians disagree about who or what was responsible for these massive crises. This is essential for top grades!

1. Interpretations of the Causes of WWI

Was it an accident, or was it planned?

a) The Intentionalist View (The Fischer Thesis)

Historian Fritz Fischer argued in the 1960s that Germany was primarily and deliberately responsible for WWI. He claimed the German elite aimed for a massive European war of expansion (a "grab for world power") and deliberately escalated the crisis in 1914.

Support: Evidence from German war aims and specific documents showing military planning.

b) The Structuralist/Systemic View

This view argues that no single nation was solely to blame. Instead, the war was inevitable due to the rigid system: the arms race, the secret alliance treaties, rigid military timetables (mobilization plans), and intense nationalism across all the major powers.

Support: All powers contributed to militarism and imperial rivalry; once the assassination happened, the system spiralled out of control.

2. Interpretations of the Causes of WWII

Who bears the ultimate guilt for the second global conflict?

a) The Orthodox View (The Aggressor Thesis)

This traditional view places overwhelming blame squarely on the aggressive totalitarian leaders, especially Hitler. They argue WWII was a war of aggression that stemmed directly from Hitler's consistent ideological goal of conquest (Lebensraum). The war was unavoidable because Hitler was determined to have it.

Support: Hitler’s documented plans (e.g., in Mein Kampf) and his repeated unilateral breaks of treaties.

b) The Revisionist View (Systemic Blame/Role of Appeasement)

Revisionists do not excuse Hitler, but they distribute the blame more widely. They argue that the war resulted less from Hitler’s strength and more from the structural weaknesses and mistakes of the democracies:

• The extreme harshness of the Treaty of Versailles created conditions that made Hitler's rise possible.
• The disastrous policy of Appeasement by Britain and France convinced Hitler he could act without serious consequences until it was too late.