Sociology (9292) | Issues in research

Welcome to Issues in Research: The Sociologist's Toolkit!

Hi there! Welcome to one of the most important parts of the research methods section. Research isn't just about choosing a method (like questionnaires or interviews); it’s also about facing the challenges that come up when you actually go out and do the research.

Think of a sociologist as a detective. They need to solve mysteries (research questions), but they have to deal with roadblocks like budget limits, time constraints, and making sure they treat everyone fairly.

In this chapter, we will learn about the three main types of problems sociologists face: Practical, Ethical, and Theoretical issues. Understanding these issues is key to evaluating any piece of sociological research!

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Section 1: Practical Issues (The Logistics and Limitations)

Practical issues are the real-world, hands-on problems that affect whether a researcher can actually carry out their study effectively. These are often about time and money.

1. Time and Cost

All research takes time and costs money. However, some methods are much more demanding than others:

• Interviews and Participant Observation: These methods usually take a long time (sometimes years!) and can be very expensive if you need to travel or hire multiple researchers to transcribe data.
• Questionnaires and Secondary Data: These methods are generally quicker and cheaper, especially if done online.

Example: If a university researcher has only six months and a small budget, they probably cannot conduct a detailed, year-long ethnographic study of a specific remote community.

2. Funding and Sponsorship

Who is paying for the research? This can introduce bias (a theoretical issue, but linked to practicalities!).

• If a large corporation funds a study on the effectiveness of their product, the sociologist might feel pressure (consciously or unconsciously) to produce results that favour the company.
• This affects objectivity (keeping personal feelings or sponsor interests out of the findings).

3. Access and Gatekeepers

Sometimes, the population a sociologist wants to study is hard to reach. They need permission from a gatekeeper.

Who is a Gatekeeper?
A gatekeeper is someone who controls access to a group or setting.

Example:

• To study students in a school, the Headteacher is the gatekeeper.
• To study factory workers, the Manager or union leader is the gatekeeper.

If the gatekeeper refuses access, the research cannot happen, or the researcher might have to change their focus, which weakens the original study.

4. Researcher Skills and Characteristics

Does the researcher have the right skills? Ethnography (deep, observational study) requires strong interpersonal skills, patience, and the ability to fit in.

Also, the researcher’s characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity) can sometimes affect how the participants respond or whether they trust the researcher. A young researcher might struggle to interview senior managers, for example.

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Section 2: Ethical Issues (Doing the Right Thing)

Ethical issues involve morality – the rules about what is right and wrong in research. Sociologists must ensure their study does not harm participants and respects their rights.

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! Just remember the golden rule: Treat people how you would want to be treated if you were being studied.

1. Informed Consent

This is the cornerstone of ethical research. Participants must understand what the research is about, how their data will be used, and agree to take part voluntarily.

• Informed: They must know the aims and procedures.
• Consent: They must agree freely.

Challenge: Obtaining consent from children or people with severe learning difficulties requires obtaining consent from their parents or caregivers.

2. Deception and Covert Research

Deception means misleading the participants about the true nature of the study or the researcher's identity. This is generally seen as unethical.

In covert research, the sociologist hides their identity (they go undercover). While this often leads to high validity (people act naturally), it violates informed consent and is highly controversial.

Did you know? Many famous historical studies are now considered unethical because the participants were misled or experimented on without knowing the full risk.

3. Protection from Harm (Physical and Psychological)

Researchers must guarantee that participants will not suffer any physical injury, psychological distress, embarrassment, or loss of livelihood as a result of the study.

If a study on domestic violence causes a participant to feel distress while recalling events, the researcher must be ready to stop the interview and offer support.

4. Confidentiality and Anonymity

• Confidentiality: The researcher knows who the participants are but promises not to share their names or identifying details with anyone else.
• Anonymity: The researcher does not know the identity of the participants (e.g., in a completely anonymous online survey).

The privacy of the participants must always be protected. Published findings should never make it possible to identify individuals, especially if they reveal sensitive or illegal behaviour.

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Section 3: Theoretical Issues (The Quality of the Findings)

Theoretical issues relate to the quality and usefulness of the data produced. These problems determine whether the findings truly reflect reality and whether they can be trusted.

1. Validity (Is it True?)

Validity asks: Does the research truly measure what it claims to measure? Does the data give a true, accurate picture of social reality?

Analogy: Imagine throwing darts. If you hit the bullseye, your findings are valid.

• Qualitative methods (like observation) are generally seen as having higher validity because the researcher gets deep understanding (Verstehen) of the subjects' lives.
• A common threat to validity is Researcher Imposition (when the researcher accidentally forces their own meanings onto the participants, e.g., by creating biased questions on a questionnaire).

2. Reliability (Is it Consistent?)

Reliability asks: If another researcher repeated the exact same study, using the exact same methods, would they get the same results?

Analogy: Hitting the same spot on the dartboard every time, even if it’s not the bullseye. The results are consistent, even if they aren't fully accurate.

• Quantitative methods (like structured interviews and official statistics) are often high in reliability because the methods are standardized and easy to repeat.
• Low reliability means the findings are based on luck or random factors, not systematic measurement.

Key Takeaway: Methods often trade off quality. Qualitative methods offer high validity (truth) but often low reliability (consistency). Quantitative methods offer high reliability but sometimes lower validity (less depth).

3. Generalisability

Generalisability (or representativeness) asks: Can the findings from the small group we studied (the sample) be applied to the larger population (the target population)?

Example: If you interview 10 students at one specific private school, you probably cannot generalize those findings to all students in the entire country because your sample is not representative (it doesn't reflect the diversity of the whole population).

Researchers aim for a representative sample to ensure high generalisability.

4. Objectivity and Value Freedom

Objectivity means the sociologist tries to remain neutral, unbiased, and prevents personal values or political beliefs from influencing the research process or the interpretation of the results.

• Sociologists debate whether true objectivity (Value Freedom) is possible, as all research involves choices (what to study, what questions to ask) that are based on the researcher's personal values.
• Nevertheless, sociologists should strive to be as objective as possible when analyzing data.

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Final Summary and Application

When you are evaluating a sociological study in your exams, you should always critique it using the P.E.T. framework:

Practical (Time, Cost, Access)
Ethical (Consent, Harm, Confidentiality)
Theoretical (Validity, Reliability, Generalisability)

By using P.E.T., you show the examiner that you understand the challenges facing researchers and can expertly judge the strengths and weaknesses of different methods.