Psychology (9218) | Communication

Psychology (9218) Study Notes: Communication

Introduction: The Secret Language of Social Life

Hello future psychologists! Welcome to the chapter on Communication. Don't worry if this feels like a big topic—it’s actually the most natural thing we do!
In the "Social Context and Behaviour" section, we look at how people interact. Communication is the engine of all social behaviour. Understanding it helps us know why people react the way they do, both when they are speaking and when they are silent.

Why this is important: In your exams, you need to explain how we send and receive messages, and crucially, how culture changes the rules of interaction.

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1. What is Communication? The Basics

1.1 Defining Communication

Communication is simply the process of sending and receiving information between two or more people. This information can be thoughts, ideas, feelings, or instructions.

Think of it like texting:
1. The Sender (you) has a message.
2. The message is Encoded (turned into words or emojis).
3. The message is sent through a Channel (your phone/voice).
4. The Receiver (your friend) gets the message and Decodes it (understands it).

Sometimes messages get mixed up—that’s often because of a mismatch between the two main types of communication!

1.2 The Two Main Types of Communication

Most of the information we convey is non-verbal! These two types always work together:

1. Verbal Communication (V):
This is what we say. It involves spoken language, the actual words chosen, and the clarity of speech.

2. Non-Verbal Communication (NV or NVC):
This is how we say it and everything else we do. It includes body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice. NVC often tells us the true emotional meaning behind the verbal message.

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2. Verbal Communication and Tone

While the actual words (the vocabulary) are important, in Psychology, we focus more on aspects of verbal communication that affect the social message.

2.1 The Power of Tone of Voice (Paralanguage)

The Tone of Voice is incredibly important. It describes the features of speech that are not the words themselves.

This includes:

• Pitch: How high or low your voice is.
• Volume: How loud or quiet you speak.
• Speed/Pace: How quickly or slowly you speak.
• Emphasis: Which words you stress.

Example: Imagine a teacher says, "You did a great job." If they say it loudly and quickly, they probably mean it. If they say it slowly, quietly, and with a low pitch, it might sound sarcastic or untrue. The words are positive (Verbal), but the tone (Non-Verbal element of Verbal communication) changes the meaning entirely.

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3. Non-Verbal Communication (NVC)

NVC is often called the "silent language." It includes everything that isn't the spoken word. It helps us regulate conversations, express emotions, and signal our attitude towards others.

3.1 Facial Expressions

Your face is the most expressive part of your body. Psychologists believe that certain fundamental emotions are universal, meaning people all over the world make the same faces for them.

The Six Basic Emotions (often studied by researchers like Ekman, though you don't need to recall his name specifically) are:
1. Happiness (Smile)
2. Sadness (Drooping eyes/mouth)
3. Anger (Furrowed brow)
4. Fear (Wide eyes, raised brows)
5. Surprise (Open mouth, sudden expression)
6. Disgust (Wrinkled nose, upper lip raised)

Did you know? Even people who are born blind often display these same facial expressions, suggesting they are innate (built-in) rather than learned!

3.2 Body Language: Posture and Gestures

Body Language refers to how we position our body (posture) and the movements we make with our hands, arms, or head (gestures).

Posture

Posture signals attitude, status, and interest:

• Open Posture: Arms and legs uncrossed, leaning slightly forward. This suggests friendliness, interest, and confidence.
• Closed Posture: Arms crossed tightly, slumped shoulders, turning away. This suggests defensiveness, anxiety, or disagreement. (Analogy: Like putting a shield up.)

Gestures

Gestures help illustrate what we are saying. They can often replace words entirely (e.g., nodding for 'yes', or shrugging for 'I don’t know').

Avoid Common Mistake: Students often confuse *universal* gestures (like pointing) with *culturally specific* gestures (like the 'thumbs up'). Remember, many hand gestures change meaning depending on where you are in the world! (See Section 4.)

3.3 Eye Contact (Gaze)

How and when we look at someone is a powerful form of NVC. Psychologists call this Gaze.

• High Eye Contact: Usually signals interest, engagement, honesty, or attraction.
• Lack of Eye Contact: Can signal shyness, lack of interest, or deceit (lying).
• Prolonged Staring: If you stare too long, it can be interpreted as aggressive, threatening, or overly intense. This is why a stare-down often precedes an argument!

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4. Communication and Culture: The Social Rules

Communication is shaped by the social environment we grow up in. What is perfectly normal in one culture may be rude or confusing in another. This is crucial for your understanding of the Social Context.

4.1 Cultural Norms for NVC

Different cultures have different display rules—norms about when and how to show certain emotions or behaviours.

i. Eye Contact

In many Western cultures (e.g., the UK, USA), consistent eye contact is a sign of honesty and respect.
However, in many Asian, African, and Latin American cultures, direct or prolonged eye contact with an elder or a superior can be seen as challenging, rude, or disrespectful. Lowering your eyes is a sign of deference (respect).

ii. Physical Proximity (Personal Space)

This is known as Proxemics. How close you stand to someone during a conversation varies dramatically.

• Contact Cultures: People in places like the Middle East, South America, and Southern Europe tend to stand closer, touch more, and engage in more mutual gaze.
• Non-Contact Cultures: People in places like Northern Europe, North America, and parts of Asia prefer more personal space and less physical touching during conversations.

Analogy: If a contact-culture person and a non-contact-culture person talk, the non-contact person might keep stepping backwards because they feel the other person is standing too close! This is a simple misunderstanding of cultural rules.

iii. Gestures

Hand gestures are the riskiest form of NVC because their meanings can be completely inverted:

• In the UK, the 'thumbs up' means 'good' or 'okay'. In some parts of the Middle East, it can be extremely offensive.
• The ‘OK’ sign (making a circle with the index finger and thumb) is positive in the USA but can be an insult in Brazil or Germany.

4.2 Understanding Ethnocentrism

When we judge other cultures based purely on the standards and values of our own culture, we are being Ethnocentric.

In Psychology, we must avoid ethnocentrism. If a Japanese person avoids eye contact with you, an ethnocentric interpretation might be, "They must be lying." A non-ethnocentric (or culturally relative) interpretation is, "They are showing me respect according to their cultural norms."