History (9245) | Peacemaking and the League of Nations, c1919-1939

Welcome! Studying Peacemaking and the League of Nations, c1919-1939

Hi everyone! This chapter is crucial because it looks at the world's first attempt to create lasting peace after the horror of World War I. Think of WWI as a massive house fire—and this chapter is about the difficult and often messy process of rebuilding that house and setting up a neighborhood watch (the League of Nations) to make sure it never happens again.

We will break down the crucial treaties that ended the war and analyze why the global organization designed to keep the peace ultimately failed in the 1930s. Don't worry if some concepts seem tricky; we’ll use simple language and lots of memory tricks!

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Part 1: The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaties (1919)

After four years of brutal fighting, the winning countries (the Allies) gathered in Paris to decide the fate of the defeated nations, especially Germany. This gathering was called the Paris Peace Conference.

The 'Big Three' – Who Wanted What?

The decisions were mostly made by the leaders of the three most powerful Allied countries. Their aims clashed massively, making creating the treaties very difficult.

1. Georges Clemenceau (France)

• Goal: Punishment and Security. France had suffered the most damage (most fighting happened on French soil).
• Key Demand: Cripple Germany completely so it could never attack France again. Demanded massive reparations (payments) for damage.
• Analogy: Clemenceau wanted to put Germany in a locked cell with no keys.

2. Woodrow Wilson (USA)

• Goal: Idealism and Long-Term Peace. Wilson wanted to establish a fair world based on his Fourteen Points.
• Key Demand: Establishment of the League of Nations (a global discussion club) and the principle of Self-determination (people choosing their own governments).
• Analogy: Wilson wanted everyone to shake hands, forgive, and join a new, peaceful club.

3. David Lloyd George (Britain)

• Goal: Balance and Practicality. He needed Germany to be punished (because the British public demanded it) but not so harshly that Germany would seek revenge later or become too weak to trade with Britain.
• Key Demand: Keep Britain's naval superiority and gain Germany's colonies. He acted as the 'middle man' between France and the USA.
• Analogy: Lloyd George wanted Germany to pay a fine but still be able to run their business and buy things from Britain.

The Treaty of Versailles (ToV): Punishing Germany

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919. Germany was forced to accept the terms without negotiation—a 'Diktat' (imposed settlement). It caused deep resentment in Germany.

To remember the main terms of the treaty, use the acronym LAMB:

L: Land (Territorial Terms)

• Germany lost 13% of its European land.
• Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France (it had been taken in 1871).
• Germany's overseas colonies were taken and became Mandates (ruled by the League, but effectively controlled by Britain and France).
• The Rhineland (border region with France) was demilitarised—meaning Germany could not put troops there.

A: Army (Military Restrictions)

• The German army was limited to only 100,000 men.
• Conscription (forced military service) was banned.
• Germany was forbidden from having tanks, submarines, or a military air force.
• The navy was limited to just 6 battleships.

M: Money (Reparations)

• Germany had to pay Reparations (payments) to the Allies for the damage caused by the war.
• The final sum was set in 1921 at a huge £6.6 billion. This put a massive strain on the German economy.

B: Blame (War Guilt Clause)

• Article 231, the War Guilt Clause, forced Germany to accept total responsibility for starting the war.
• This clause was perhaps the most hated part of the treaty by the German people, as they felt it was humiliating and untrue.

Key Takeaway for Part 1: The Treaty of Versailles was harsh and created deep resentment. While it satisfied Clemenceau, it was seen as unfair by the Germans and too idealistic/too harsh by others, laying the groundwork for future conflict.

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Part 2: The League of Nations (The Hope for Peace)

The League of Nations was Wilson’s dream—an international organisation where countries could solve problems peacefully without resorting to war. It officially started in January 1920.

Aims and Membership

The four main aims of the League, often summarized by the acronym C.I.A.P.:

• Collective Security (working together to protect each other).
• Improve social conditions (health, labour, refugees).
• Agreements between countries (disarmament, treaties).
• Peace promotion (stopping wars).

Crucial Flaw from Day One: The US Senate refused to ratify (approve) the Treaty of Versailles, meaning the USA—the world's richest and most powerful nation—never joined the League. This was a devastating blow.

Structure of the League

The League was structured like a government:

The Assembly

This was the main body where all member nations met once a year. Decisions had to be unanimous (everyone must agree). This made decision-making very slow.

The Council

The Council was the 'emergency' body, meeting more often and dealing with sudden crises. It had:

• Permanent Members: Britain, France, Italy, and Japan (later Germany and the USSR joined, then left).
• Non-Permanent Members: Elected every three years.
• The Permanent Members had a special power called the Veto—they could stop any decision even if everyone else agreed.

The Secretariat

The League’s administrative staff—they carried out the work, prepared reports, and kept records.

Special Commissions and Agencies

These groups did successful humanitarian work:

• The Health Organisation (fighting diseases like malaria).
• The Refugee Organisation (repatriating refugees after WWI).
• The International Labour Organisation (ILO) (improving working conditions globally).

How the League Intended to Keep the Peace

If a dispute occurred, the League had three main methods of dealing with the aggressor:

1. Moral Condemnation: Simply telling the aggressive country they were wrong (shaming them).
2. Economic Sanctions: Cutting off trade and economic links. This was meant to cripple the aggressor's economy.
3. Military Force: Member states would contribute troops to physically stop the aggressor. BUT: The League had no standing army of its own. It relied entirely on members to volunteer troops.

League Successes in the 1920s

In the relatively peaceful 1920s, the League had several key successes, often involving smaller disputes:

• The Aaland Islands (1921): Successfully mediated a dispute between Sweden and Finland, granting the islands to Finland but ensuring Swedish cultural rights.
• Upper Silesia (1921): Successfully supervised a referendum and divided the region fairly between Germany and Poland.
• Bulgaria (1925): Greece invaded Bulgaria. The League ordered Greece to withdraw and pay compensation. Greece obeyed, showing that the League’s authority could work when dealing with smaller nations.

Key Takeaway for Part 2: The League was ambitious but fundamentally weak due to the lack of the USA and having no standing army. It worked well when countries were willing to cooperate (1920s), but its structure was too slow and reliant on unanimous decisions.

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Part 3: The League's Decline and Failure (The Crucial Test of the 1930s)

The Great Depression (starting in 1929) hit world economies hard. Countries became more focused on their own needs (national self-interest) than on collective security. When powerful, aggressive states challenged the League in the 1930s, the system collapsed.

The Manchurian Crisis (1931-1933)

This was the first major test of the League against a major power.

1. The Aggression: Japan was a Permanent Member of the Council. In 1931, the Japanese army fabricated an incident (the Mukden Incident) as an excuse to invade and conquer Manchuria (a resource-rich region of China).
2. League Response (Slow Motion): China appealed to the League. The League took a full year to send a commission (the Lytton Commission) to investigate.
3. The Verdict and Reaction: The Lytton Report stated Japan was wrong and should return Manchuria. Japan responded by simply leaving the League of Nations in 1933.
4. Failure to Act: Britain and France were unwilling to impose harsh economic sanctions (they were busy dealing with the Great Depression) and certainly would not send troops thousands of miles away. Japan successfully kept Manchuria.

The result was devastating: A major power ignored the League, suffered no real consequences, and set a dangerous example for other dictators (like Hitler and Mussolini) that the League was weak.

The Abyssinian Crisis (1935-1936)

This crisis involved Italy, another Permanent Member of the Council, and was the final nail in the League's coffin.

1. The Aggression: Benito Mussolini (leader of Italy) wanted to expand his empire and avenge a past defeat. In 1935, Italy invaded the African nation of Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
2. League Response (Half-Hearted): The League immediately condemned Italy and imposed economic sanctions. However, these sanctions were weak: the League failed to ban oil exports (which Italy desperately needed) or close the Suez Canal (which was vital for Italy’s supply route).
3. The Secret Deal (Hoare-Laval Pact): While sanctions were supposedly in place, the British Foreign Minister (Hoare) and the French Prime Minister (Laval) secretly negotiated a deal to give Mussolini two-thirds of Abyssinia if he called off the invasion.
4. The Fallout: News of the Hoare-Laval Pact leaked, causing public outrage. The League’s credibility was destroyed. Italy completed its conquest of Abyssinia and also left the League in 1937.

This proved that Britain and France prioritized their own interests (keeping Italy as an ally against Hitler) over the principles of the League.

Why Did the League Ultimately Fail? (Summary of Weaknesses)

The League failed because it lacked the power and the political will to deal with powerful aggressors.

1. Structural Weaknesses

• No USA: The world's most powerful economy was absent.
• Lack of an Army: It relied on members to volunteer troops.
• Slow Decisions: The need for unanimous votes in the Assembly meant crises often escalated before the League could act.

2. National Self-Interest vs. Collective Security

• When push came to shove (in Manchuria and Abyssinia), Britain and France chose their own national security and economic recovery over punishing aggressors.
• The League became a tool of Britain and France, not a truly global organization.

3. Timing (The Great Depression)

• The Depression made countries selfish and unwilling to risk war or lose important trading partners (like Japan or Italy) by imposing tough sanctions.