History (9245) | Life in Russia and the USSR, 1914-1953

Study Notes: Life in Russia and the USSR, 1914–1953

A Journey Through Extreme Change (Studies in Change)

Hello future historians! This chapter is one of the most exciting and challenging in the course. Why? Because you are going to witness one of the fastest and most dramatic periods of change in modern history.

We start in 1914 with a huge, poor, and ancient empire ruled by a Tsar (King), and we end in 1953 with a terrifying, modern industrial superpower run by a dictator, Joseph Stalin. Understanding how this massive transformation happened is the key to success in this topic!

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Section 1: The End of Tsarist Russia and the Revolutions (1914–1921)

1.1 Russia in Crisis: The Impact of World War I (1914–1917)

Before 1914, Russia was unstable. Most people were poor peasants (farmers) who had very little land. The Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled with absolute power.

• The Disaster of War: World War I was the major catalyst for change. Russia was simply not ready for modern warfare.
• Poor Supplies: Russian soldiers often lacked basic items—food, boots, and even rifles!
• Military Losses: Millions of Russian soldiers were killed or injured.
• Famine and Inflation: At home, food could not reach the cities because the railways were used for the war. Prices soared (inflation). People starved.

Key Takeaway: WWI didn't just cause problems; it exposed how weak and unpopular the Tsarist system truly was, setting the stage for revolution.

1.2 1917: The Year of Two Revolutions

Don't worry if the two revolutions seem confusing—just remember that the first one ended the monarchy, and the second one brought the Communists to power.

A. The February/March Revolution (Ending the Tsar)

In February 1917, massive strikes and protests over food shortages erupted in the capital, Petrograd. When the army refused to shoot the protestors, the Tsar realised he had no support left.

• The Change: Tsar Nicholas II abdicates (steps down).
• New Government: A weak temporary government called the Provisional Government took charge. It failed because it kept Russia in WWI.

B. The October/November Revolution (Bolshevik Takeover)

The Bolsheviks (the extreme Communist party led by Vladimir Lenin) promised "Peace, Land, and Bread." They gained popular support because they promised to end the war immediately.

• The Change: The Bolsheviks seized power easily from the weak Provisional Government. This marked the start of Communist rule.

1.3 War Communism and Civil War (1918–1921)

The Bolshevik takeover led to a brutal Civil War against their opponents (known as the 'Whites'). To win the war, Lenin introduced extreme measures called War Communism.

• What was War Communism? Extreme state control over everything. All factories were nationalised (taken over by the state). Food was forcibly seized from peasants to feed the Red Army and city workers.
• Result: The Bolsheviks (the 'Reds') won the war, but the economy was ruined, and massive famine swept the country. War Communism failed Russia's economy.

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Section 2: Lenin’s Retreat and Stalin’s Rise (1921–1928)

2.1 The New Economic Policy (NEP)

After the disaster of War Communism and a peasant uprising (the Kronstadt Revolt), Lenin realised he needed to relax control temporarily. In 1921, he introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP).

The Great Policy Change (The NEP)

The NEP was a temporary step backwards towards capitalism.

• Peasants: Could sell their surplus produce for profit (instead of having it forcibly seized).
• Small Businesses: Small factories and shops were allowed to operate privately and make a profit.
• Result: The economy started to recover quickly. Food supplies improved, and markets returned.

Analogy: War Communism was like running a car with no fuel (it stalled). The NEP was like adding just enough temporary fuel to get it running again, before switching back to the "Communist engine."

Did you know? Lenin died in 1924, leading to a huge power struggle. The main rivals were Leon Trotsky (who wanted permanent revolution worldwide) and Joseph Stalin (who wanted 'Socialism in One Country'—focusing on making the USSR strong first). Stalin, being the better politician, won.

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Section 3: Stalin’s Transformation of the USSR (1928–1941)

Stalin ended the NEP in 1928. He believed the USSR had to modernise at lightning speed to catch up with the West, or it would be destroyed. This period is known as the "Great Turn."

3.1 Industrialisation: The Five Year Plans

Stalin launched the Five Year Plans—ambitious targets for industrial growth designed to turn the USSR into an industrial giant, focusing on heavy industry (steel, coal, oil).

• How it Worked: Central planning. The government (not businesses) decided exactly what was produced, how much, and where.
• Targets: Targets were incredibly high, putting immense pressure on managers and workers. If targets weren't met, you could be arrested.
• Winners: Production of steel, coal, and electricity skyrocketed. Huge industrial cities (like Magnitogorsk) were built from scratch. The USSR gained the ability to produce modern weapons.
• Losers: Workers endured terrible working conditions, low wages, and harsh discipline. Consumer goods (clothing, radios) were ignored—people’s standard of living remained very low.

3.2 Collectivisation of Agriculture

To fund industrialisation and feed the growing number of city workers, Stalin totally changed farming through Collectivisation.

What was Collectivisation?

The forced merging of millions of small peasant farms into huge state-owned farms called Kolkhoz (collective farms).

• Goal 1: Efficiency: Use tractors and machinery (Machine Tractor Stations - MTS) to produce food more efficiently.
• Goal 2: Control: The state could easily seize grain from the Kolkhoz to sell abroad (to pay for machinery) or feed the cities.
• The Kulaks: Stalin targeted the Kulaks (wealthier peasants who had done well under the NEP), calling them 'enemies of the people.' Millions were deported, imprisoned, or killed.

The Human Cost of Collectivisation

Peasants violently resisted by burning their crops and slaughtering their animals rather than giving them to the state. This led directly to devastating famines, especially the Holodomor (death by hunger) in Ukraine (1932–1933), killing millions.

Common Mistake: Collectivisation was NOT meant to kill people, but it was done so brutally and quickly that mass starvation was the result. It was a massive change enforced by terror.

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Section 4: Life Under Terror and Control (1934–1941)

During the 1930s, Stalin established a Totalitarian State—one where the government controls every aspect of public and private life. Control was maintained through fear and propaganda.

4.1 The Great Purges (Yezhovshchina)

Stalin became paranoid about potential rivals. He launched the Great Purges, a period of widespread political repression and persecution.

• Target 1: The Communist Party: Thousands of long-serving Bolsheviks, military leaders (e.g., in the Red Army), and government officials were arrested and executed after rigged Show Trials.
• Target 2: Ordinary Citizens: Anyone who complained, resisted Collectivisation, or even joked about Stalin could be denounced.
• The NKVD: The Secret Police (later KGB) enforced the purges, carrying out arrests and executions.

4.2 The Gulag System

Those arrested were often sent to the Gulag, the vast network of forced-labour camps located mostly in remote and freezing parts of the USSR.

• Purpose: To punish "enemies" and provide cheap labour for huge projects (like canals or logging) under terrible conditions.
• Life in the Gulag: Brutal. Hunger, cold, and overwork meant survival rates were extremely low.

4.3 Propaganda and Culture

To ensure loyalty, the state controlled all information:

• Cult of Personality: Stalin was presented as an all-wise, god-like leader, the 'Father of the Nation.'
• Control of History: Old history books were rewritten, erasing the memory of Trotsky and other rivals.
• Education: Schools taught total devotion to the Communist Party and Stalin.

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Section 5: The Great Patriotic War and its Aftermath (1941–1953)

5.1 The Great Patriotic War (World War II)

When Germany invaded the USSR in June 1941, the war became known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. The scale of the fighting was immense.

• Defense of the Nation: The war became a struggle for survival. Stalin mobilised the entire population and all industrial resources (which had been built up by the Five Year Plans).
• Key Battles: Battles like Stalingrad (1942–43) demonstrated the USSR's brutal commitment to victory.
• Human Cost: Around 27 million Soviet citizens (military and civilian) died—the highest casualty rate of any country in WWII.

The Change: The war temporarily boosted Soviet patriotism and solidified Stalin's image as a national hero and saviour. But the destruction was unimaginable.

5.2 Post-War Recovery and Final Years (1945–1953)

After 1945, Stalin’s priority was rebuilding the devastated country, especially heavy industry.

• Fourth Five Year Plan: Focused on rapid reconstruction. Once again, heavy industry was prioritised over consumer goods, meaning life for ordinary people remained very difficult and poor.
• Return to Terror: Despite the unity shown during the war, Stalin immediately restarted purges and repression (the Zhdanovshchina, targeting culture and intellectuals) to ensure his absolute power was maintained.

The End of an Era: Stalin died in March 1953. His death ended the period of extreme, personal dictatorship and ushered in yet another wave of change for the Soviet Union.