Social and Cultural Anthropology | The practice of anthropology

Welcome to the Practice of Anthropology!

Hello future anthropologists! This chapter is where we move from the "what" (concepts and theories) to the "how". If you’ve ever wondered what an anthropologist actually does every day, this is your answer!

The practice of anthropology—also known as fieldwork—is the engine that creates all the amazing knowledge we study. By mastering this section, you will not only understand how knowledge is produced but also develop the critical, reflexive skills the IB expects you to demonstrate in your essays and internal assessments (IA).

Section 1: The Core of Anthropological Practice

What is Anthropological Practice?

The practice of anthropology centers on intense, long-term, direct engagement with the people, communities, or issues being studied.

1. Fieldwork: Immersion is Key

Fieldwork is the essential research method used by social and cultural anthropologists. Unlike a journalist who visits for a week, or a sociologist who conducts a survey, anthropologists typically spend an extended period (often 12 months or more) immersed in a single research site.

Think of it this way: If you want to understand how a complex machine works, reading the manual is helpful (theory), but spending a year taking it apart and rebuilding it while talking to the engineers (fieldwork) gives you the deepest understanding.

2. Ethnography: The Product of Practice

Fieldwork is the *process*; ethnography is the *product*.

• Fieldwork (Process): The daily life of observing, interviewing, and participating.
• Ethnography (Product): The written (or film) account detailing the research findings, analysis, and interpretation of a specific culture or group.

A good ethnography isn't just a description; it’s an interpretive analysis that explains beliefs, social structures, and practices, often connecting local realities to global processes.

Did You Know? The classic model of fieldwork involved an anthropologist studying a small, remote society. Today, fieldwork is often multi-sited (involving multiple locations) and can take place anywhere—from a remote village to a corporate office in New York City!

Section 2: The Signature Method – Participant Observation

The single most defining feature of anthropological research is participant observation. This method requires the anthropologist to balance two seemingly opposite roles simultaneously.

A Step-by-Step Guide to Participant Observation

Participant observation is more than just watching; it’s about learning through doing and feeling.

Step 1: Gaining Entry and Establishing Rapport

Before research can begin, the anthropologist must gain permission and build trust (rapport) with the community. This is a delicate process, often involving learning the local language and customs.
Example: If you arrive in a new village, you need a local sponsor or helper who can introduce you and vouch for your intentions. Without rapport, people won't share their true lives.

Step 2: Balancing Participation and Observation

This is the core tension of the method:

• Participation (Insider): Engaging in daily activities, rituals, and routines. This provides an emic perspective (the insider’s view). You feel what it's like to be part of the group.
• Observation (Outsider): Systematically recording what is happening, maintaining critical distance, and comparing findings to theoretical models. This provides an etic perspective (the analytical, outsider’s view).

Analogy: Imagine you are researching a sports team. You must practice with them, eat with them, and celebrate their victories (Participation). But you must also write down their strategies, analyze team dynamics, and note when conflicts occur (Observation).

Step 3: Data Collection (Field Notes)

Field notes are the raw data of anthropological practice. They include:

• Jotting: Quick notes taken during the day.
• Detailed Notes: Written up immediately after observation, including descriptions of events, quotes, and reflections.
• Personal Reflections: Notes on the anthropologist's own feelings and reactions (crucial for reflexivity—see Section 3).

Common Challenge: The Insider/Outsider Dilemma

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! The hardest part of fieldwork is managing the constant shift between the emic (insider, experiential) and the etic (outsider, analytical). Too much participation, and you lose objectivity. Too much observation, and you fail to understand the deep cultural meaning.

Section 3: Essential Self-Awareness – Reflexivity and Positionality (HL/SL Critical Skills)

A crucial element of responsible anthropological practice is recognizing that the anthropologist is not a neutral camera. They are a human being whose presence and identity influence the research. This is where reflexivity comes in.

1. Understanding Reflexivity

Reflexivity is the practice of self-awareness and critical self-reflection. It requires the anthropologist to constantly examine how their own identity, background, and choices affect:

1. Which questions they ask.
2. Which people they talk to.
3. How the data is interpreted.

Why it matters: By acknowledging your biases and limitations, you make the resulting ethnography more honest and rigorous (more objective because you stated your subjectivity).

2. Understanding Positionality

Positionality refers to the social and political context that shapes the anthropologist’s identity and how they are perceived by the research community.

Factors impacting positionality include:

• Gender: A male anthropologist may only have access to male spaces and rituals; a female anthropologist may have access to female spheres.
• Age and Class: A wealthy, young researcher may be treated very differently than a working-class, older researcher.
• Race/Ethnicity/Nationality: Studying one’s "own" society (studying up) presents unique challenges compared to studying a vastly different culture.

Example: In many cultures, a researcher's married status or lack thereof can open or close doors to certain kinds of information or social interactions. Recognizing these limits is part of good practice.

Section 4: The Ethical Responsibility of Practice

The "practice" of anthropology must always be guided by a strict ethical code. Because anthropologists deal with people's most intimate beliefs and vulnerabilities, the potential for harm is high.

The Golden Rule: Do No Harm

Anthropological ethics prioritizes the well-being of the people being studied above all else.

1. Informed Consent

This is essential. Research participants must:

• Be fully informed about the nature, scope, and purpose of the research.
• Understand the potential risks and benefits.
• Voluntarily agree to participate (and know they can withdraw at any time).

Challenge: In complex, hierarchical societies, obtaining consent from local leaders doesn't always mean that every individual family has truly given informed consent.

2. Protecting Privacy and Anonymity

Anthropologists must protect the identities of their informants, especially when discussing sensitive topics (conflict, illegal activities, dissent).

• This often involves using pseudonyms (fake names) for people, places, and organizations.
• Care must be taken, however, because sometimes the community wants its identity known (e.g., if they are fighting for land rights). The researcher must prioritize the community's wishes.

3. Responsibility to the Host Community

Ethical practice extends beyond the end of fieldwork. Anthropologists have an ongoing obligation to:

• Ensure their research benefits the community (or at least does not exploit them).
• Share findings with the community in accessible ways (not just in academic journals).

Avoiding Common Ethical Pitfalls

Mistake to Avoid: Thinking ethics is a one-time thing (just getting a signature). Ethics is a continuous process. You must constantly re-evaluate your methods and protect your informants throughout the entire research process, from proposal to publication.