Philosophy | René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy

Welcome to Descartes: Building Knowledge from Scratch!

Hi there! This section covers René Descartes' revolutionary text, Meditations on First Philosophy. This text is crucial because it marks the start of modern philosophy and deeply influenced how we think about knowledge (epistemology) and reality (metaphysics).

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first. Descartes is essentially conducting a massive thought experiment to find certainty. Think of him as a philosophical detective who won't stop until he finds something that is absolutely, undeniably true.

The Core Goal: Foundationalism

Descartes realized that much of what he believed was based on shaky foundations (like old opinions learned in childhood). His goal was Foundationalism—to tear down all old beliefs and only rebuild his knowledge structure on a single, absolutely certain truth.

• Analogy: Imagine you realize your house is built on sand. Descartes says, "I must demolish the whole structure and start over, digging down until I hit bedrock."

I. Meditation I: The Method of Doubt

Descartes introduces the Method of Hyperbolic Doubt. This is not casual skepticism; it's radical doubt. He decides to reject any belief for which he can find even the slightest reason to doubt.

A. Step 1: Doubting the Senses

Our senses often deceive us (e.g., optical illusions, hearing things incorrectly). Therefore, beliefs derived purely from sensation must be rejected, at least temporarily.

Key Point: While the senses are unreliable for specific, distant observations, they usually seem reliable for immediate experiences (e.g., I see my hands right now).

B. Step 2: The Dream Argument (A stronger doubt)

Descartes observes that when he is dreaming, he often has experiences that feel as real and vivid as waking life. Since there is no absolute, definitive test to distinguish between being awake and being asleep, how can I be certain that my present experience isn't a dream?

• This argument casts doubt on the existence of the immediate physical world around him (his body, his location, etc.).
• Did you know? The Dream Argument is ancient, but Descartes uses it strategically to move skepticism from specific sensations (Is that sound really a bell?) to the entire material reality (Do bells even exist right now?).

C. Step 3: The Evil Demon (The most extreme doubt)

To ensure his doubt is truly hyperbolic, Descartes invents the most extreme skeptical scenario possible: What if an supremely powerful and malicious being (the Evil Demon) dedicates all its energy to deceiving him?

This demon could make Descartes believe:

• That 2 + 3 = 5, when it truly does not.
• That he has a body, when he is actually a disembodied consciousness.
• That the sky is blue, when the color "blue" doesn't exist.

The Evil Demon argument leads to universal doubt, challenging even simple, mathematical truths and the existence of God or the external world. Everything seems doubtful.

Key Takeaway for Meditation I: By the end of this meditation, Descartes has successfully doubted everything he previously held true. He is left with nothing—except the state of doubting itself.

II. Meditation II: The Discovery of the Cogito

Descartes asks: If everything is doubtful, is there anything that remains certain?

A. The First Certainty: The Cogito Argument

Even if the Evil Demon is deceiving me about everything—that I have hands, that the sun exists, that gravity works—the Demon cannot deceive me into thinking I exist, unless I actually exist to be deceived!

This realization leads to the famous conclusion:

"Cogito, ergo sum." (I think, therefore I am.)

Descartes has found his foundational truth. The act of thinking (or doubting, willing, imagining) necessarily proves the existence of the 'I' that performs that action.

Common Mistake to Avoid: The *Cogito* doesn't prove the existence of Descartes’ body or the external world; it only proves the existence of the mind (or consciousness) doing the thinking.

B. Defining the Self: Res Cogitans

Since the only thing Descartes knows for certain is that he thinks, he concludes that he is fundamentally a thinking thing (Res Cogitans). He defines the self based purely on mental attributes:

• Doubting
• Understanding
• Affirming
• Denying
• Willing
• Imagining
• Sensing (as a mental experience, even if the external object doesn't exist)

He is certain he is *this* thinking thing, but he is still uncertain about his body (Res Extensa, or Extended Thing).

III. Meditation II: The Wax Argument (Mind Over Senses)

To further demonstrate that he knows his mind better than he knows any physical object, Descartes introduces the famous Wax Argument.

The Purpose of the Wax Argument

To prove that knowledge of physical objects is achieved through intellectual inspection (the mind), not through the senses (sight, smell, touch).

The Step-by-Step Breakdown

Step 1: Inspecting the Solid Wax.
Descartes takes a piece of solid beeswax. He notes its sensory properties: it is hard, cold, yellow, it smells of honey, and makes a sound when tapped.

Step 2: Melting the Wax.
He places the wax near fire. All its sensory properties change dramatically:

• It becomes soft and liquid.
• It loses its color and smell.
• It no longer makes a sound.

Step 3: The Philosophical Problem.
If knowledge came purely from the senses, we would have to conclude that the melted substance is not the same wax as the solid substance, because all the sensory data has changed. Yet, everyone agrees it is the same piece of wax.

Step 4: The Conclusion.
How does Descartes know it is the same wax? Because his intellect or judgement allows him to grasp the essence of the wax—that it is a substance capable of being extended, flexible, and mutable (changeable). This essence is understood by the mind, not the eyes or ears.

Analogy: Recognizing your friend wearing a completely new outfit, wig, and sunglasses. Your senses tell you they look different, but your mind/judgement recognizes the essential person underneath the changing sensory attributes.

Therefore, Descartes asserts: "I perceive the wax by means of the mind alone."

Key Takeaway for the Wax Argument: Mental perception (intellect) is clearer, more distinct, and more reliable than sensory perception. This solidifies the conclusion that the mind is better known than the body.

IV. Key Philosophical Concepts and Vocabulary

Understanding these terms is essential for Paper 2 success:

Epistemological Concepts (Related to Knowledge)

• Hyperbolic Doubt: Radical, systematic doubt where anything that can be questioned, even remotely, is rejected. Used as a tool to find certainty.
• Foundationalism: The view that knowledge must be built upon certain, indisputable basic beliefs (the "foundation"). The *Cogito* is Descartes' foundation.
• Clarity and Distinctness: Descartes' criterion for truth. A concept is clear if it is present and open to the attending mind; it is distinct if it is so separated from other perceptions that it contains nothing but what is clearly recognized.

Metaphysical Concepts (Related to Reality)

• Substance Dualism (Cartesian Dualism): The belief that reality consists of two fundamentally different kinds of substance:
  • Res Cogitans (Thinking Substance): The mind, which is non-physical, non-extended, and defined by thought.
  • Res Extensa (Extended Substance): The body and all physical objects, defined by spatial extension (occupying space).
• Innate Ideas: Ideas (like the concept of God or mathematical truths) that are born within the mind, placed there by a perfect creator, rather than derived from sensory experience.