Welcome to Prescribed Subject 4: The Move to Global War (1931–1941)

Hello future historians! This chapter is crucial. It’s about the decade where the world stumbled from fragile peace after World War I (WWI) into the deadliest conflict in history: World War II (WWII).

We are going to explore why major powers like Japan, Italy, and Germany decided to invade their neighbors, and why the international community—especially organizations like the League of Nations—failed repeatedly to stop them. Understanding these failures helps us grasp the concepts of causation and consequence in global politics.

Don't worry if this seems like a lot of dates and names at first. We will break down the complex events into clear, manageable steps, looking at two different regions: Asia and Europe.

Key Concepts You Must Master:

  • Appeasement: Giving in to demands to avoid conflict.
  • Collective Security: The idea that all nations work together to protect the peace.
  • Isolationism: The policy of avoiding political or military involvement with other countries (especially relevant to the USA).

Part 1: The Context of Instability (The Post-WWI World)

The war didn't just happen overnight; it was the result of fundamental weaknesses in the international system established after WWI.

The Weakness of the League of Nations

The League of Nations was designed to be the central pillar of collective security—a place where countries could solve disputes peacefully.

Analogy Alert! Imagine the League of Nations as a schoolyard safety patrol. They have rules (Covenant) and they can tell bullies (aggressive nations) off, but they don't have security guards (an army) to physically enforce the rules. If a bully ignores them, the safety patrol can’t do much.

  • Lack of Universality: Key powers were missing. The USA never joined. Germany and Japan left after their aggression was condemned. The Soviet Union was excluded for a long time.
  • Lack of Enforcement Power: The League had no standing army. It relied on moral condemnation or economic sanctions (stopping trade), which often hurt the countries imposing them more than the aggressor.
The Impact of the Great Depression (1929 onwards)

The worldwide economic collapse was a massive cause of war.

  • Domestic Turmoil: Economic hardship led citizens to lose faith in democratic leaders and turn to extremist, militaristic, and aggressive leaders (like Hitler in Germany and Mussolini in Italy) who promised easy solutions and national glory.
  • Protectionism: Countries focused on their own economies (trade barriers), which reduced international cooperation and made nations more willing to seek resources through conquest.
  • Distraction for Democracies: Britain, France, and the USA were so focused on solving their own unemployment and poverty that they were unwilling to spend money or lives confronting aggression abroad.

Quick Takeaway: The League was too weak, and the Depression made the major democratic powers too inward-looking and desperate to avoid conflict, setting the stage for aggressive states to test the waters.

Part 2: The Move to War in Asia (Japanese Expansion)

Japan was the first major power to successfully challenge the post-WWI order. Its expansion was driven by a need for resources and a belief in its racial and military superiority in Asia.

The Manchurian Crisis (1931)

This is the textbook example of the League’s failure.

The Event: Japanese military officers used a fabricated incident (the Mukden Incident) as an excuse to invade Manchuria (a resource-rich region of China) in September 1931.

Japan's Motives: Japan needed coal, iron, and timber, which Manchuria had in abundance, especially after the Depression severely restricted international trade.

The Response:

  • The League appointed the Lytton Commission to investigate (a slow process!).
  • The Lytton Report (1932) condemned Japan’s actions but offered no penalty.
  • Japan simply ignored the report, set up a puppet state called Manchukuo, and then dramatically withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933.

Did you know? Since Manchuria was far away and the Depression was raging, major powers like Britain and France felt that opposing Japan wasn't worth the risk of war or the loss of Japanese trade.

Escalation in China (1937)

Following Manchuria, tensions continued to simmer. The conflict exploded into full-scale war in 1937 (often called the Second Sino-Japanese War) following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident.

  • Japan rapidly captured key Chinese cities (e.g., Shanghai, Nanjing).
  • The brutality of the conflict, particularly the Rape of Nanjing, shocked the world, but Western powers remained largely unwilling to intervene militarily.

Japanese Goal: To establish the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere," which was essentially a vast Japanese empire that would control Asia's resources, free from Western influence.

Quick Takeaway: Japan showed that a powerful nation could defy the League of Nations without facing serious consequences. This set a dangerous precedent for dictators in Europe.

Part 3: The Move to War in Europe and Africa (Italian and German Expansion)

In Europe, the aggressive ambitions of Benito Mussolini’s Italy and Adolf Hitler’s Germany directly dismantled the Treaty of Versailles and destroyed hopes of peace.

Italian Aggression: Abyssinia (Ethiopia) 1935–1936

Mussolini, determined to restore Roman glory and distract his people from economic troubles, invaded the independent African state of Abyssinia (Ethiopia).

  • Motive: Gain resources and military prestige (Mussolini wanted an 'easy' colonial victory).
  • The League's Response: The League immediately condemned Italy and applied sanctions.
  • The Failure: The sanctions were incomplete and ineffective. Crucially, oil and coal—necessary resources for war—were not included, mainly because Britain and France feared upsetting Mussolini or triggering a wider war.
  • Consequence: Italy conquered Abyssinia and also withdrew from the League (1937). The League was internationally humiliated.
German Aggression: Hitler’s Step-by-Step Program (1933–1939)

Hitler’s foreign policy aimed to achieve three main goals: 1) Abolish the Treaty of Versailles, 2) Create a Greater German Reich (uniting all German speakers), and 3) Acquire Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe.

Memory Trick (Hitler’s Steps to War): R. R. A. M. P.

  1. Rearmament (1935)
  2. Rhineland (1936)
  3. Anschluss (1938)
  4. Munich (1938)
  5. Poland (1939)

1. Rearmament (1935): Hitler openly announced the creation of an air force (Luftwaffe) and military conscription, violating the Treaty of Versailles. The Western powers protested but took no action.

2. Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936): German troops marched into the demilitarized Rhineland. This was a massive gamble; Hitler knew he would have to retreat if France reacted. France did not react, fearing war and lacking British support. This was a critical psychological victory for Hitler.

3. Anschluss (Union with Austria) (March 1938): Hitler pressured the Austrian government into accepting unification. This again violated the Treaty of Versailles, but since many Austrians welcomed the union, international protest was mild.

4. The Sudetenland and the Munich Agreement (September 1938):

  • Hitler demanded the Sudetenland (a region of Czechoslovakia with a large German-speaking population).
  • To avoid war, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French leaders met with Hitler at the Munich Conference.
  • Under the policy of Appeasement, Britain and France agreed to let Hitler take the Sudetenland, provided he made no further demands. Chamberlain famously returned home proclaiming "peace for our time."

5. Dismemberment of Czechoslovakia (March 1939): Breaking his promise, Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia. This act proved that Hitler’s goals went beyond uniting German speakers and completely shattered the policy of Appeasement.

6. Invasion of Poland (September 1, 1939): Having secured a temporary non-aggression pact with the USSR (the Nazi-Soviet Pact, August 1939), Hitler invaded Poland. Britain and France, finally realizing that Hitler could not be trusted, declared war, beginning WWII in Europe.

Quick Takeaway: German and Italian aggression systematically destroyed the WWI treaties. The unwillingness of Britain and France to risk war—known as Appeasement—only convinced Hitler and Mussolini that they could continue their expansion unchecked.

Part 4: The Failure of International Diplomacy

The "move to global war" was not just about aggressors taking action, but about the inability of the status quo powers (UK, France, USA) to stop them.

Why did Appeasement happen?

Appeasement is often criticized, but leaders like Chamberlain had genuine reasons for adopting it:

  • Fear of Communism: Some leaders saw Hitler as a buffer against the Soviet Union (a greater threat, they thought).
  • Memories of WWI: The trauma and cost of WWI were so profound that political leaders were desperate to avoid a repeat.
  • Mistaken Belief: Many believed that Germany and Italy had genuine, limited grievances (e.g., the harshness of Versailles) and that once these were addressed, they would become reasonable.
  • Military Unpreparedness: Britain and France were severely behind Germany in rearmament until 1938/1939 and needed time to catch up.
The Formation of the Axis Powers

As Britain and France failed to offer strong opposition, the aggressor states grew closer:

  • Rome-Berlin Axis (1936): An informal agreement between Hitler and Mussolini.
  • Anti-Comintern Pact (1936, expanded 1937): Originally between Germany and Japan (later joined by Italy). Its stated goal was to oppose Communism (the Comintern), but its real significance was to align the three major revisionist powers who sought to overturn the global order.
The Crucial Role of the Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939)

This pact between arch-enemies Hitler and Stalin shocked the world. It was a non-aggression treaty that secretly divided Eastern Europe (including Poland) between the two powers.

  • Hitler's Gain: It ensured Germany could invade Poland without fighting a two-front war against the USSR.
  • Stalin's Gain: It bought the Soviet Union time (about two years) to prepare its own military forces for the eventual inevitable conflict with Hitler.

The Nazi-Soviet Pact removed the final diplomatic obstacle to Hitler's invasion of Poland, guaranteeing the start of the European war.

Common Mistake to Avoid!

Do not confuse the causes of WWII (the long-term failures like the League and Appeasement, and the actions of the dictators) with the start date of WWII (the invasion of Poland in 1939). The "move to global war" covers the entire decade leading up to that declaration.

Quick Review: The Chain of Failure

WWI Treaties (too harsh/weak) + Great Depression (economic chaos)
↓
Rise of Militarism (Japan, Italy, Germany)
↓
League of Nations Failure (Manchuria, Abyssinia)
↓
Appeasement (Rhineland, Munich)
↓
Aggressors Unchecked (Nazi-Soviet Pact + Invasion of Poland) = GLOBAL WAR

Study Skills Focus: Source Analysis for Paper 1

This prescribed subject is tested in Paper 1, meaning you must analyze historical sources. When studying this topic, always ask these questions about any primary source you encounter:

  • Value: What does this source tell us about the decision-making process? (e.g., A speech by Chamberlain shows the *rationale* for Appeasement.)
  • Limitation: What does the source hide? (e.g., A Nazi propaganda poster on *Anschluss* doesn't show the coercion or persecution that followed.)