Sociology (9699) | Socialisation and the creation of social identity

AS & A Level Sociology (9699) Study Notes: Paper 1, Section 1

Welcome to the World of Sociology!

Hi there! This chapter is one of the most exciting parts of Sociology because it answers the fundamental question:
How do we become who we are?

You’re not born knowing how to queue, use money, or understand morality. You learn all of it! This process is called socialisation, and it shapes your entire social identity. Don't worry if some concepts seem tricky at first—we'll use lots of simple analogies to make them stick.

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1. The Process of Learning and Socialisation (Syllabus 1.1)

Socialisation is the lifelong process of learning the culture of your society. It turns a biological organism into a functional social being.

What is Culture? (The Iceberg Analogy)

Culture is the whole way of life of a society. Think of culture like an iceberg:

• Visible Parts (Surface Culture): Customs, clothing, food, language.
• Invisible Parts (Deep Culture): Values, beliefs, norms, and ideologies—the things we internalise.

Key Elements in the Social Construction of Reality

Sociologists argue that our reality isn't natural; it’s *constructed* through shared meaning. We learn the following elements:

• Norms: These are the unwritten rules of behaviour. (E.g., facing the door in an elevator, not shouting in a library.)
• Values: Shared moral beliefs about what is right or wrong, important or desirable. They underpin norms. (E.g., the value of 'respect' leads to the norm of 'not interrupting people'.)
• Roles: The expected behaviour of someone occupying a particular social position. (E.g., the role of a student includes attending class and completing homework.)
• Status: A social position in society. This can be ascribed (given at birth, like royal status) or achieved (earned, like a doctor).
• Beliefs: What a society holds to be true (e.g., religious beliefs, scientific knowledge).
• Customs: Traditional and regular ways of behaving that are specific to a group (e.g., celebrating certain holidays).

Did you know?

The concept of Ideology is key here. It means a set of ideas or beliefs that explain and justify the social arrangements of a group. Marxists argue that the dominant ideology often supports the interests of the powerful.

The Nature vs. Nurture Debate

This debate asks: Is our behaviour determined by biology (nature) or social learning (nurture)?

• Nature: Argues that genetic makeup and biological instincts determine behaviour (e.g., aggression is instinctual).
• Nurture: Argues that socialisation and culture are the main determinants of behaviour. Sociologists strongly favour nurture.

Example: Studies of 'feral children' (like Anna or Isabelle) who were deprived of social contact show that they cannot develop language or basic social skills, providing powerful evidence for the essential role of nurture.

The Agencies of Socialisation

These are the social groups and institutions responsible for teaching us culture. We distinguish between two main types:

1. Primary Socialisation: Occurs mainly within the immediate family in the earliest years of life. It’s fundamental for learning language, basic values, and emotional bonds.
2. Secondary Socialisation: Occurs later in childhood and throughout adult life, involving larger institutions and groups.

The Key Agencies (Remember P-FEMA-R)

• Peer Group: People of similar age and status, important for developing independence and non-conformity.
• Family (Primary Agency): Transmits basic norms, values, and language. Often shapes primary identity.
• Education: Teaches formal knowledge, but also the hidden curriculum (things like punctuality, respecting authority).
• Media: Shapes views on gender, race, and consumption. Increasingly significant in globalised societies.
• Religion: Provides moral framework, values, and a sense of collective identity.

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2. Social Control, Conformity and Resistance (Syllabus 1.2)

If society teaches us what to do, why do we generally follow the rules? And why do some people resist?

Structure and Agency: The Core Debate

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! This is the fundamental sociological debate about free will versus determinism.

Imagine society as a building:

• Structuralist View (The Architect): Society (the structure) is already built, and it dictates where you stand and how you move. You are a product of the social forces (class, gender, norms). Sociologists like Marx and Durkheim take this macro (large-scale) approach.
• Interactionist View (The Interior Designer/Agency): Humans (agents) have the ability to interpret and change the structure. We interact, create meaning, and constantly reshape society through our choices. Sociologists like Weber and Goffman take this micro (small-scale) approach.

Key Takeaway: Sociologists need to be aware of the difference between how structure (social institutions/rules) shapes us and how agency (our free will/choices) allows us to resist or change that structure.

Factors Explaining Conformity

Why do most people follow the norms?

1. Sanctions: Rewards (positive sanctions) or punishments (negative sanctions). These can be formal (laws, grades) or informal (smiles, frowns).
2. Social Pressure: The desire to fit in and be accepted by peers (often linked to avoiding informal negative sanctions).
3. Self-Interest: Conforming because it benefits you (e.g., studying hard to get a good job).
4. Social Exchange: We conform because we expect social benefits in return (like helping a friend knowing they will help you later).

Mechanisms Maintaining Social Order

Societies aren't chaos because of these mechanisms:

• Consensus: Agreement within society about values and norms (Functionalist view).
• Ideology: The set of dominant ideas that make the social arrangements seem natural and fair (Marxist view).
• Power: The ability to make others do what you want, even if they don't want to.
• Force: The use of physical or legal means to enforce compliance (e.g., police and the justice system).

Explaining Deviance and Non-Conformity (Resistance)

When people deviate or resist, sociologists look for root causes:

• Subcultures: Groups within a larger culture that have distinct norms and values, which may oppose mainstream society (e.g., some youth gangs).
• Under-socialisation: When an individual hasn't adequately learned the basic norms and values of society (often linked to inadequate primary socialisation).
• Cultural Deprivation: Lacking the specific cultural resources (language, knowledge) needed to succeed in dominant institutions like education.
• Marginalisation: When a group is pushed to the edge of society and denied full participation, which can lead to feelings of resentment and non-conformity.
• Social Resistance: Conscious acts by individuals or groups to challenge or oppose dominant norms, power structures, or ideologies (e.g., peaceful protests).

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3. Social Identity and Change (Syllabus 1.3)

Your social identity is defined by the characteristics and roles that you share with others (e.g., being a student, a citizen, a sibling). The syllabus focuses on four key elements that shape this identity:

Elements in the Construction of Social Identity

• Social Class: Identity is shaped by economic status, occupation, and wealth. A working-class identity may involve strong community bonds, while a middle-class identity might focus on individual achievement.
• Gender: The socially constructed roles, behaviours, and identities associated with being male or female (distinguishing it from biological sex). Socialisation teaches us "how to be" a man or a woman in our culture.
• Ethnicity: A shared cultural heritage, including language, religion, ancestry, and traditions. Ethnic identity often provides a strong sense of belonging.
• Age: Identity linked to specific stages of life (childhood, adolescence, elderly). These stages are also social constructions, meaning the *meaning* of being "old" or "a child" changes across cultures and time.

How Identities are Changing

Modern societies are less rigid than previous eras. Sociologists note that identities are becoming more fluid and complex due to global influences:

1. Globalisation: The increased interconnectedness of the world (through travel, trade, and media) exposes individuals to many cultures.
   • Effect: Identities become less tied to one nation or local culture. You can adopt music, fashion, and values from around the globe.
2. Increased Choice (Postmodernism): In postmodern society, traditional structures (like religion or fixed social class) have less influence.
   • Effect: Individuals have more freedom to create a "pick-and-mix" identity, choosing elements from various sources (e.g., following a spiritual practice not tied to a traditional religion).
3. Creation of New/Hybrid Identities: This is the mixing of two or more cultural traditions to form a new identity.
   • Example: A second-generation migrant may develop a hybrid identity, blending the traditional values of their parents’ culture with the liberal norms of the society they grew up in (e.g., "British-Pakistani" identity).