Psychology (9990): Organisational Psychology

Chapter 4.5: Satisfaction at Work - Study Notes

Hello future Organizational Psychologist! This chapter is all about what makes employees happy, motivated, and committed to their jobs. Understanding job satisfaction is crucial because a happy workforce is usually a productive and stable workforce. Get ready to dive into the theories and measurements that explain how people feel about their careers!

Quick Review: Organisational Psychology looks at how individuals and groups function within an organisation and how this impacts the overall business.

4.5.1 Theories of Job Satisfaction

Psychologists have developed models to explain why some people love their jobs and others count down the minutes until quitting time. We will focus on two major theories.

1. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

Frederick Herzberg proposed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposite ends of the same scale. Instead, they are influenced by two separate sets of factors:

A. Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers)

These are the basic necessities. If they are absent or poor, they cause dissatisfaction. However, having them present won't necessarily lead to long-term satisfaction—it just stops you from complaining.

  • Examples: Company Policy, Supervision, Salary (Pay), Working Conditions, Interpersonal Relationships (with colleagues and managers).

Analogy: Think of these like a car’s brakes and steering wheel. If they fail, you are definitely unhappy (dissatisfied). But working perfectly doesn't make the drive exhilarating—it just makes it safe and acceptable.

B. Motivational Factors (Satisfiers)

These factors actively create satisfaction and motivation. They relate directly to the job content and personal growth.

  • Examples: Achievement, Recognition, The Work Itself, Responsibility, Advancement, and Growth.

Did you know? Herzberg's theory suggests you could pay someone a massive salary (Hygiene factor) but they would still be dissatisfied if their job lacked challenge (Motivational factor).

2. Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Theory (JCT)

This theory suggests that the structure of the job itself determines how motivated and satisfied an employee is. It proposes a link between five Core Job Characteristics and three Critical Psychological States.

Core Job Characteristics (The 5 Ingredients of a Good Job):
  1. Skill Variety: The degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities and skills. (E.g., A chef using many different techniques, not just chopping onions.)
  2. Task Identity: The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. (E.g., A carpenter building a whole table, not just gluing one leg.)
  3. Task Significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. (E.g., A nurse directly saving lives.)
  4. Autonomy: The degree of freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining procedures. (E.g., Being allowed to decide the best way to handle a client complaint.)
  5. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities results in direct and clear information about effectiveness. (E.g., Getting immediate performance results from a quality control check.)
Critical Psychological States (How the 5 Characteristics make you feel):
  • Skill Variety, Task Identity, and Task Significance lead to felt Meaningfulness of Work.
  • Autonomy leads to felt Responsibility for Outcomes.
  • Feedback leads to Knowledge of Actual Results.

3. Techniques of Job Design (Applying the Theories)

Organisations use job design techniques to intentionally alter how a job is structured to increase motivation and satisfaction (often based on JCT and Herzberg).

  • Job Enrichment: This is vertical loading. Giving the employee more responsibility, autonomy, and control over their planning and execution (linking strongly to Hackman and Oldham’s Autonomy).
  • Job Rotation: Moving employees systematically from one job to another to reduce boredom and increase Skill Variety. (E.g., A factory worker moving between three different assembly stations over the course of a week.)
  • Job Enlargement: This is horizontal loading. Giving the employee more tasks to perform at the same level of responsibility (increases the *number* of tasks, but not necessarily the complexity or autonomy). Often used to combat the monotony of specialisation.

Study Example (Belias and Sklikas, 2013): Job design techniques like enrichment and rotation are crucial in modern workplaces, especially for improving employee commitment and reducing burnout.

Key Takeaway (4.5.1): Satisfaction is complex. It's not just about money (Hygiene), but also about feeling growth, responsibility, and meaning (Motivators and Job Characteristics).

4.5.2 Measuring Job Satisfaction

Since satisfaction is a psychological attitude, we need reliable and valid ways to measure it. We primarily use self-report methods like rating scales and questionnaires (psychometrics).

1. The Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

The JDI is one of the most famous and widely used scales for measuring job satisfaction. It focuses on several facets (parts) of the job, rather than just an overall 'happy or sad' rating.

  • The JDI uses adjectives and short phrases, asking employees to respond 'Yes' (Y), 'No' (N), or 'Unsure' (?).
  • It measures satisfaction across five key facets:
    1. Work Itself (e.g., challenging, boring)
    2. Pay (e.g., adequate, low)
    3. Promotion Opportunities (e.g., good chance, dead end)
    4. Supervision (e.g., critical, supportive)
    5. Co-workers (e.g., stimulating, pleasant)

2. Walton's Quality of Working Life (QWL)

Walton developed a broader concept than simple job satisfaction, focusing on the overall quality of the relationship between the employee and the working environment. The QWL is assessed across eight conditions that should be met by an organisation:

  1. Adequate and Fair Compensation: Pay should be equitable and provide a decent standard of living.
  2. Safe and Healthy Working Conditions: Physical environment must be safe and hygienic.
  3. Immediate Opportunity for Development and Security: Jobs must allow the use and development of human capacities (e.g., autonomy, skill variety).
  4. Opportunity for Continued Growth and Security: Jobs should offer opportunities for career advancement and learning.
  5. Social Integration: The absence of prejudice and the presence of openness and mutual support.
  6. Constitutionalism (Due Process): Employee rights must be protected (e.g., fairness, right to appeal).
  7. Work and Total Life Space: Work demands should not overwhelm personal and family life.
  8. Social Relevance: The organisation must be perceived as socially responsible.

QWL Evaluation Scale: This scale helps assess how well the organisation meets these eight conditions, providing a comprehensive metric of the quality of the employee experience.

Key Takeaway (4.5.2): We measure satisfaction not only as a whole feeling (like an overall rating) but by breaking it down into specific job parts (JDI facets) or broader organisational conditions (Walton's QWL).

4.5.3 Attitudes to Work

Job satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) affects key employee attitudes and behaviours, such as sabotage and absence.

1. Workplace Sabotage (When Satisfaction is ZERO)

Workplace Sabotage refers to attempts by employees to damage or disrupt an organisation’s operations, property, or image. It often arises from intense dissatisfaction or perceived unfairness.

Key Study: Reasons for Sabotage in the Workplace (Giacalone and Rosenfeld, 1987)

This study investigated why employees engage in destructive behaviour.

  • Methodology: Used self-reports (questionnaires) to gather reasons for sabotage.
  • Reasons identified: Sabotage is often seen as a form of retaliation or protest against unfair treatment (a situational explanation).
    • The most common reasons were related to: Unfair management, poor working conditions, and perceived violations of trust or promises.
    • Sabotage can also be linked to boredom (a lack of Hackman and Oldham's Skill Variety or Autonomy) or a way to reduce stress.
  • Application: Understanding these reasons allows management to implement interventions focused on improving fairness and job design to reduce destructive attitudes.

2. Absenteeism and Organisational Commitment (Blau and Boal, 1987)

Absenteeism is the failure to report for scheduled work. It is a major economic drain on organisations.

  • Types of Absence:
    • Voluntary Absence: Choosing not to come to work (often linked to low job satisfaction).
    • Involuntary Absence: Being unable to come to work (e.g., genuine illness, family emergency).
Blau and Boal’s Model of Absenteeism and Organisational Commitment

This model links a worker's commitment to the organisation with their motivation to attend work.

Categories of Organisational Commitment:

Commitment is a psychological link between the employee and the organisation that makes it less likely for the employee to voluntarily leave.

  1. Affective Commitment: The employee stays because they want to. They identify with the organisation’s goals and values. (Highest attendance motivation).
  2. Continuance Commitment: The employee stays because they need to. Leaving would be too costly (e.g., losing benefits or having nowhere else to go). (Moderate attendance motivation).
  3. Normative Commitment: The employee stays because they feel they ought to. They feel a sense of obligation or loyalty. (Moderate attendance motivation).

Connection: According to the model, high Affective Commitment leads to the lowest levels of voluntary absenteeism, as the employee genuinely wants to be at work.

Key Takeaway (4.5.3): Negative attitudes like sabotage are often a reaction to perceived unfairness or poor job design. Attendance and absence are strongly predicted by the type and degree of commitment an employee feels toward the organisation.