Introduction: Why Do We Get Out of Bed? (Motivation to Work)
Hello future Organisational Psychologists! This chapter is all about one of the most fundamental questions in the workplace:
Why do people work?
Is it just for the money? Or is there something deeper? Organisational Psychology explores how employers can best motivate their staff to improve productivity, job satisfaction, and overall well-being. Understanding these theories is essential for success in this topic! Don't worry if some of the names seem complicated; we will break down each theory into simple, memorable steps.
4.1.1 Need Theories of Motivation
Need theories assume that motivation comes from an internal drive to satisfy specific needs or desires. If these core needs are met, the employee will be motivated.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943)
Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a five-tier hierarchy. We must satisfy the lower-level needs before we can effectively move on to motivate ourselves with higher-level needs.
Think of it like building a house—you need a solid foundation before you can worry about the roof!
The Five Needs (Bottom to Top):
- Physiological Needs: Basic survival requirements (food, water, shelter).
In the workplace: Adequate pay to afford life necessities, breaks, comfortable working temperature. - Safety Needs: Security and protection from harm.
In the workplace: Job security, a safe working environment, health benefits, pension schemes. - Social Needs (Love and Belonging): The need for friendship, acceptance, and a sense of community.
In the workplace: Teamwork, supportive colleagues, company social events, good relationships with managers. - Esteem Needs: The need for self-respect, achievement, status, and recognition from others.
In the workplace: Job titles, recognition awards, promotions, challenging work that leads to a feeling of accomplishment. - Self-Actualisation Needs: Achieving one's full potential; being the best version of oneself.
In the workplace: Opportunities for creative input, personal growth, challenging projects, and using unique skills.
Quick Review: If an employee doesn't have enough money (Physiological need) or feels their job is unstable (Safety need), Maslow suggests they won't be truly motivated by things like praise or complex tasks (Esteem/Self-Actualisation).
McClelland's Theory of Achievement Motivation (1961)
McClelland focused on three learned needs (or motives) that are acquired through culture and life experience. People are motivated differently depending on which need is dominant for them.
Memory Tip: Remember the three P's of McClelland: Power, People, Performance (Achievement/Affiliation/Power).
The Three Needs:
1. Need for Achievement (n-Ach):
Individuals with high n-Ach are driven by the desire to excel, succeed, and master tasks. They prefer:
- Challenging but achievable goals (not too easy, not impossible).
- Situations where they receive immediate and clear feedback.
- Working alone or with other high achievers.
2. Need for Affiliation (n-Aff):
Individuals with high n-Aff are motivated by the desire to have friendly, cooperative relationships and be liked by others. They prefer:
- Working in teams and collaborative settings.
- Jobs that involve significant social interaction (e.g., customer service).
- Avoiding high-risk or conflict situations.
3. Need for Power (n-Pow):
Individuals with high n-Pow are motivated by the desire to influence, control, or teach others. This need can be positive (institutional power, influencing for the good of the organisation) or negative (personal power, controlling others for personal gain). They prefer:
- Taking leadership roles and making decisions.
- Being in positions of authority and influence.
Key Takeaway for Need Theories: Both Maslow and McClelland focus on what motivates us internally—whether it’s a universal hierarchy of needs or three learned dominant motives.
4.1.2 Cognitive Theories of Motivation
Cognitive theories shift the focus from internal needs to thought processes. Motivation is seen as the result of conscious choices, expectations, and goal setting.
Latham and Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory (1990)
This theory suggests that specific, difficult (but not impossible) goals lead to higher performance than vague, easy goals. Setting goals helps focus effort, increases persistence, and encourages the development of strategies.
Goal-Setting Principles
For goals to be effective, five principles must be followed:
- Clarity: Goals must be clearly defined and measurable (e.g., "Increase sales by 10%" not "Try to sell more").
- Challenge: Goals must be difficult enough to be stimulating, but still attainable (a "stretch").
- Commitment: Employees must accept and believe in the goal, often achieved through participation in setting them.
- Feedback: Regular information about progress is necessary for the individual to adjust their effort or strategy.
- Task Complexity: For complex tasks, ensure the employee has the resources and time needed (complex tasks require learning, not just maximum effort).
Memory Aid: SMART Goals
You might have heard of the SMART acronym, which summarises the key principles, particularly clarity and challenge:
- Specific (Clarity)
- Measurable (Clarity)
- Achievable (Challenge)
- Relevant (Commitment)
- Time-bound (Clarity/Feedback)
Vroom’s VIE (Expectancy) Theory (1964)
Vroom's theory argues that motivation is determined by an individual's belief that their effort will lead to desired outcomes. It is essentially a calculation of whether the reward is worth the effort.
Formula: Motivation = V x I x E
If any of the three components is zero, the overall motivation will be zero.
The Three Components:
1. Expectancy (E): Effort -> Performance
This is the belief that putting in effort will lead to the required performance level. (e.g., "If I study hard, I expect to get a good grade.")
Organizational application: Does the employee believe they have the skills, resources, and training to achieve the target?
2. Instrumentality (I): Performance -> Outcome
This is the belief that successful performance will lead to a specific outcome (the reward). (e.g., "If I get a good grade, I expect my parents to buy me a gift.")
Organizational application: Does the employee trust that the company will follow through and give them the promised bonus or promotion if they hit the target?
3. Valence (V): Outcome -> Value
This is the value or attractiveness an individual places on the potential reward/outcome. (e.g., "How much do I actually care about this gift?")
Organizational application: Is the reward meaningful to the employee? A high-performing individual who values time off might have low valence for a small cash bonus.
Did you know? Vroom's theory is often seen as highly individualistic because it requires managers to know what each employee values (Valence) and what they expect (Expectancy and Instrumentality).
Key Takeaway for Cognitive Theories: Motivation isn't just a fixed desire; it's a calculated decision based on how confident you are and how much you value the reward.
4.1.3 Motivators at Work: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic
Psychologists typically divide workplace rewards into two types: extrinsic (outside the person) and intrinsic (inside the person).
Extrinsic Motivators (The "Carrots")
These are rewards given by other people, usually the organisation. They are external and tangible (can be touched or measured).
- Pay: Salary or hourly wages.
- Bonuses: Extra payments, usually tied to specific targets.
- Profit-sharing: Employees receiving a portion of the company’s annual profits.
- Performance-related pay (PRP): Financial rewards linked directly to individual or team achievement (e.g., commission).
Intrinsic Motivators (The "Inner Drive")
These are internal rewards that come from the task itself. They provide a sense of satisfaction, accomplishment, or enjoyment.
- Praise and Respect: Verbal or written recognition from colleagues or managers.
- Recognition: Formal acknowledgment of success (e.g., Employee of the Month).
- Empowerment: Giving employees authority and control over their work (reducing micromanagement).
- Sense of Belonging: Feeling like a valued member of the team/company.
Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
SDT argues that people are motivated to grow and change, especially when three key innate psychological needs are satisfied. When these needs are met, people experience intrinsic motivation—they do the task because they genuinely enjoy it or find it meaningful.
Memory Tip: Remember the three needs using the acronym CAR:
1. Competence: The need to feel capable and effective in completing tasks and achieving desired outcomes. (Feeling successful.)
2. Autonomy: The need to feel in control of one’s own behaviour and goals. (Having control/choice.)
3. Relatedness: The need to experience belonging and connection with others. (Feeling connected.)
Crucial Point: SDT warns that extrinsic rewards can sometimes undermine intrinsic motivation. If you give someone money for a task they already enjoy, they might start doing it only for the money, reducing their sense of autonomy. This is known as the overjustification effect.
Key Study: Landry et al. (2019) – Applying SDT to Cash Rewards (Study 1 Focus)
This study investigated how different types of monetary rewards affected participants’ motivational states, based on Deci and Ryan's SDT.
Aim and Procedure (Study 1)
Aim: To see how a cash reward based on performance feedback affects the three needs of SDT (Competence, Autonomy, Relatedness) and, consequently, motivation.
Procedure: Participants performed a computerised task (finding differences between two images). They were placed in different reward conditions:
- Experimental Condition: Participants were told they would receive a cash reward based on their performance score.
- Control Condition: Participants were paid a fixed rate and did not receive a performance-based cash reward.
After the task, participants filled out a questionnaire measuring their feelings of Competence, Autonomy, and Intrinsic Motivation.
Results and Conclusions
- Participants in the cash reward condition reported a lower sense of Autonomy compared to the control group. The external money was perceived as controlling their behaviour.
- When autonomy was reduced, intrinsic motivation also decreased. They felt less interested in the task itself and more focused on the external payoff.
- The conclusion supports SDT: While extrinsic rewards (cash) might increase short-term performance, they can damage the internal feeling of autonomy, thus reducing long-term intrinsic motivation for the task.
Key Takeaway for Motivators: High motivation is often best achieved when employees feel competent and have autonomy, which requires careful management of how extrinsic rewards (like pay) are used.