Psychology (9990) | Advertising

Study Notes: Specialist Option 2 – Consumer Psychology (Chapter 2.5: Advertising)

Hello future Consumer Psychologists! This chapter dives into the fascinating world of advertising—the messages we see every day that try to influence our decisions. Understanding this area is vital because it explains how psychology is used on a massive scale to shape attitudes, beliefs, and spending habits. Don't worry if some of the models seem complex; we'll break them down step-by-step!

2.5.1 Types of Advertising and Advertising Techniques

The Yale Model of Communication (Persuasion)

The Yale Model, developed by Carl Hovland and colleagues in the 1950s, is one of the earliest psychological frameworks for understanding how communication causes persuasion. It focuses on five key features of the communication process:

1. Source: Who is delivering the message? (e.g., expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness). A celebrity is often a high-attractiveness source.
2. Message: What is being said? (e.g., one-sided vs. two-sided arguments, fear appeals, repetition).
3. Channel/Medium: How is the message delivered? (e.g., face-to-face, print, television, social media).
4. Receiver/Audience: To Whom is the message directed? (e.g., age, personality, intelligence).
5. Effect: What is the result? (The change in attitude or behaviour).

Quick Tip: Think of the Yale Model as the essential ingredients for persuasion. If you change any ingredient (Source, Message, Channel, Receiver), the final outcome (Effect) will likely change too.

Advertising Media and Measurement

Advertising is delivered through various media, and psychologists study how consumers interact with them:

• Types of Media: Printed (magazines, newspapers), Television, Internet (banner ads, videos), and Smartphone (apps, mobile web).
• Measuring Attention: Psychologists use advanced techniques to see exactly where attention is focused:
  • Eye-tracking: Records eye movements to see which parts of an advert are looked at first and for how long.
  • EEG (Electroencephalography): Measures brain waves to determine cognitive engagement (how much processing effort is required) or emotional response to an advert (Ciceri et al., 2020).

Lauterborn's 4 Cs Marketing Mix Model

Traditionally, marketing used the 4 Ps (Product, Price, Place, Promotion). Lauterborn argued that in a consumer-driven age, marketers need to shift focus. The 4 Cs are centred around the consumer, not the company:

1. Consumer Needs and Wants (replaces Product): Focus on solving the consumer's problems, not just pushing a product.
   Example: Instead of selling 'headphones' (product), sell 'a distraction-free commute' (need).
2. Cost to Satisfy (replaces Price): This includes more than just the monetary price. It includes the cost of time, effort, and psychological cost (e.g., guilt).
3. Communication (replaces Promotion): Focuses on two-way dialogue and interaction (e.g., social media engagement) rather than just one-way promotion (shouting about the product).
4. Convenience to Buy (replaces Place): How easy is it for the consumer to purchase and find the product? This relates heavily to online shopping and retail store layout.

2.5.2 Advertising-Consumer Interaction

Advertising works differently on different people. One major factor is the consumer’s personality, specifically their level of self-monitoring.

Consumer Personality: Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring refers to the extent to which people observe and control their expressive behaviour and self-presentation in social settings.

• High Self-Monitors: People who constantly adjust their behaviour to fit the social situation. They are highly responsive to the image and prestige conveyed by products.
• Low Self-Monitors: People who act primarily based on their internal beliefs and values. They are less concerned with fitting in and are more responsive to a product's true quality and function.

Key Study: Snyder and DeBono (1985) – Consumer Personality and Advertising

This study investigated whether high and low self-monitors respond better to different types of advertising appeals.

Focus (Study 3): How self-monitoring influences the effectiveness of image-based versus quality-based advertising.

• Aim: To see if product image appeals are more persuasive for High Self-Monitors (HSM) and if quality claims are more persuasive for Low Self-Monitors (LSM).
• Procedure: Participants first completed a questionnaire (the Self-Monitoring Scale) to determine if they were HSM or LSM. They were then shown advertisements for various products (e.g., whiskey, coffee). The ads used either:
  • Image Appeal (Social Adjustment): Focus on prestige, style, and social status achieved by using the product.
  • Quality Appeal (Internal Functionality): Focus on the product's actual features, performance, and value.
• Results:
  • HSMs found the Image Appeal ads significantly more favourable and reported higher intentions to purchase the advertised products.
  • LSMs found the Quality Appeal ads significantly more favourable and reported higher intentions to purchase.
• Conclusion: Advertising effectiveness is highly dependent on the consumer's personality (specifically self-monitoring level), demonstrating that a 'one-size-fits-all' advert does not exist.

Product Placement

Product Placement is the strategic insertion of branded products into media content, such as movies, television shows, or video games.

• Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated, brief exposure to a product (even subconsciously) increases the viewer's liking for it.
• Reminders: When the consumer later encounters the product in a real-world setting (e.g., in a shop), the memory of the product from the movie acts as a reminder, influencing choice.
• Example: Seeing a specific brand of car driven by the hero in a blockbuster movie makes you more likely to consider that brand when buying a new car.

2.5.3 Brand Awareness and Recognition

Brand Recognition in Children

Understanding advertising starts early. Children acquire an understanding of advertising through logo recognition.

• Research shows that even very young children (pre-school age) can recognize major brand logos long before they understand the persuasive intent behind the advert (Fischer et al., 1991).
• As children mature, they move from simple recognition ("I know that yellow arch is McDonald's") to understanding the advertiser's intent ("They want me to ask my parents to buy that toy").

Brand Awareness, Image, and Effective Slogans

To be successful, a product must first be recognised and then associated with positive characteristics.

1. Brand Awareness: This is how quickly and easily a brand comes to a consumer's mind. Advertising campaigns often focus on maintaining high brand awareness (top-of-mind status).

2. Brand Image: The psychological meaning or set of associations a consumer holds about a brand (e.g., Volvo = safety; Nike = athletic performance).

3. Effective Slogans: Slogans are short, memorable phrases used in advertising to help establish brand image and increase recognition.

• Types and Function: Slogans can be based on product performance (“It cleans better!”) or consumer experience (“Taste the feeling!”). Their primary function is to simplify the brand message and make it stick in memory.
• Guidelines for Effective Slogans (Kohli et al., 2007): Effective slogans are often:
  1. Memorable: Easy to recall (often short and rhythmic).
  2. Unique: Distinguished from competitors.
  3. Positive: Emphasizing benefits rather than negative outcomes.
  4. Targeted: Relevant to the specific audience.

  Did you know? Kohli et al. found that slogans that include a clear benefit or value proposition were rated as significantly more effective by marketing managers.